How to Understand Them? A Review of Emotional Indicators in Horses.

Stabled horses often experience negative emotions due to the inappropriate living conditions imposed by humans. However, identifying what emotions horses experience and what can trigger positive and negative emotions in stabled horses can be challenging. In this article we present a brief history of the study of emotions and models that explain emotions from a scientific point of view and the physiological bases and functions of emotions. We then review and discuss physiological and behavioral indicators and cognitive bias tests developed to assess emotions in horses. Hormone concentrations, body temperature, the position of the ears, facial expressions and behaviors, such as approach and avoidance behaviors, can provide valuable information about emotional states in horses. The cognitive bias paradigm is a recent and robust tool to assess emotions in horses. Knowing how to evaluate the intensity and frequency of an individual's emotions can guide horse owners and caretakers to identify practices and activities that should be stimulated, avoided or even banned from the individual's life, in favor of a life worth living. The development and validation of novel indicators of emotions considering positive and negative contexts can help in these actions.

Mice Cohabiting With Familiar Conspecific in Chronic Stress Condition Exhibit Methamphetamine-Induced Locomotor Sensitization and Augmented Consolation Behavior.

Recognizing and sharing emotions are essential for species survival, but in some cases, living with a conspecific in distress condition may induce negative emotional states through empathy-like processes. Studies have reported that stressors promote psychiatric disorders in both, those who suffer directly and who witness these aversive episodes, principally whether social proximity is involved. However, the mechanisms underlying the harmful outcomes of emotional contagion need more studies, mainly in the drug addiction-related behaviors. Here, we investigated the relevance of familiarity and the effects of cohabitation with a partner submitted to chronic stress in the anxiety-like, locomotor sensitization, and consolation behaviors. Male Swiss mice were housed in pairs during different periods to test the establishment of familiarity and the stress-induced anxiety behavior in the elevated plus maze. Another cohort was housed with a conspecific subjected to repeated restraint stress (1 h/day) for 14 days. During chronic restraint the allogrooming was measured and after the stress period mice were tested in the open field for evaluation of anxiety and locomotor cross-sensitization induced by methamphetamine. We found that familiarity was established after 14 days of cohabitation and the anxiogenic behavior appeared after 14 days of stress. Repeated restraint stress also increased anxiety in the open field test and induced locomotor cross-sensitization in the stressed mice and their cagemates. Cagemates also exhibited an increase in the consolation behavior after stress sessions when compared to control mice. These results indicate that changes in drug abuse-related, consolation, and affective behaviors may be precipitated through emotional contagion in familiar conspecifics.

Lambs are more stressed at early weaning when housed with their twin.

The objective of this study was to compare the behavioural and immunological responses of twin lambs housed together with their siblings or not after weaning. The study was performed with seven multiparous Milchschaf ewes and their twin lambs (n = 14), which were weaned abruptly at 63 days of age and assigned to two experimental groups: (1) lambs that were housed together with their sibling after weaning (group GT, n = 6) and (2) lambs that were separated from their siblings and remained with other lambs from the same flock (group GS, n = 8). Before and after weaning, the distance between twins, the number of times in which the sibling was the closest lamb, the lambs' behaviours, and the average daily gain were recorded. The lambs' immune response was assessed with the phytohemagglutinin skin test after weaning. The closest lamb before weaning was the sibling in all cases (P < 0.0001 for all). The frequency in which GT lambs were observed closest from its twin increased on the day of weaning (P = 0.002). During the day of weaning, GT lambs vocalised and paced more than GS lambs (P = 0.001 and P = 0.01, respectively). Twenty-four h after the phytohemagglutinin injection, the skinfold thickness was greater in GS than GT lambs (P = 0.03). In conclusion, twin lambs housed together with their siblings were more stressed at weaning, displaying more intensive behavioural changes and a poorer immunological status than twin lambs housed separated from their siblings.

Contagious depression: Automatic mimicry and the mirror neuron system - A review.

Contagious depression is a theory proposing that depression can be induced or triggered by our social environment. This theory is based on emotional contagion, the idea that affective states can be transferred during social interaction, since humans can use emotional contagion to communicate feelings and emotions in conscious and unconscious ways. This review presents behavioral, physiological, and neuroanatomical aspects of two essential contagious depression mechanisms, automatic mimicry and the mirror neuron system.

Consequences of alcohol use, and its association with psychological distress, sensitivity to emotional contagion and age of onset of alcohol use, in Uruguayan youth with or without college degree.

Psychological distress can promote alcohol consumption during emerging adulthood. Still unknown is, however, how predisposition to emotional contagion alters psychological distress, and how these phenomena are affected by level of education. The present study analyzed the effect of psychological distress, age of first contact with alcohol (early, late), and predisposition to emotional contagion on alcohol-induced negative consequences and on the volume of alcohol consumed during the last year. We also described alcohol-use behaviors as a function of sex, maximum level of education and age of first contact with alcohol, in 1505 youth from Uruguay (18-30 years). A survey measured alcohol use (Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test and ad-hoc questionnaire), negative consequences of alcohol use [young adult alcohol consequences questionnaire (YAACQ)], psychological distress (Kessler scale) and proclivity to emotional contagion (Doherty Emotional contagion scale). The patterns of alcohol use were greater in men vs. women and in those featuring an early age of first alcohol use, yet similar in college and non-college graduates. Early drinkers had greater levels of psychological distress than late-onset drinkers. There was a significant bivariate and multiple correlation between psychological distress and the number of negative consequences of alcohol experienced during the last year, which remained significant even after controlling for total volume of alcohol consumed. Significant associations emerged between YAACQ scores and frequency of heavy episodic or binge drinking, and between psychological distress and emotional contagion, but not between emotional contagion and any of the remaining variables. Psychological distress was not significantly correlated with heavy episodic or binge drinking. The study indicates that, during adolescence and youth, psychological distress is associated with experiencing negative consequences of alcohol consumption. The study also suggested that greater levels of psychological distress may underlie the facilitating effect of an early age of drinking onset upon alcohol drinking patterns.

Traços de Personalidade Psicopática e a associação com Empatia e Contágio Emocional / Psychopathic personality traits and the association with empathy and emotional contagion

As pesquisas empíricas sobre psicopatia têm enfatizado o modelo dimensional da personalidade na sua compreensão, possibilitando assim estudos na população em geral. A literatura atual tem identificado prejuízos na empatia dos indivíduos com traços de psicopatia, vista como um construto multidimensional com componentes afetivos e cognitivos, e no contágio emocional, um processo mais primitivo e filogenético. Entretanto, pesquisas sobre o tema na população em geral ainda são escassas. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a associação de traços de psicopatia, empatia e contágio emocional em população geral. A amostra foi composta por 284 participantes, com idade média de 24,6 anos (DP=8,37). Instrumentos utilizados foram o Instrumento de Autorrelato para avaliar traços de psicopatia, o Interpersonal Reactivity Index para avaliar empatia e o Emotional Contagion Scale para avaliar contágio emocional. Foram encontradas associações negativas entre empatia e traços de psicopatia, associações negativas entre contágio emocional e empatia e associações positivas entre contágio emocional e traços de psicopatia. Os resultados indicam que os traços de psicopatia estão associados com menores níveis de empatia e contágio emocional, indicando que existem características de dessensibilização emocional, e que a empatia e o contágio emocional estão fortemente associados, sugerindo serem processos complementares.

Empirical research on psychopathy has emphasized the dimensional model of personality in its understanding, thus enabling studies in the general population. Current literature has identified empathy impairments in individuals with psychopathic traits, seen as a multidimensional construct with affective and cognitive components, and in emotional contagion, a more primitive and phylogenetic process. Nevertheless, research on this subject in the general population is still scarce. This study aims to evaluate the association of psychopathic traits, empathy and emotional contagion in general population. The sample was composed of 284 participants (mean age 24.6 years; SD = 8.37). The instruments used were a self-report instrument to evaluate psychopathic traits, the Interpersonal Reactivity Index to evaluate empathy and the Emotional Contagion Scale to assess emotional contagion. Negative associations were found between empathy and psychopathic traits and between emotional contagion and empathy, such as positive associations between emotional contagion and psychopathic traits. Results show that psychopathic tendencies are associated with lower levels of empathy and emotional contagion, indicating the existence of emotional desensitization characteristics, and that empathy and emotional contagion are strongly associated, suggesting that both are complementary processes.

Preliminary behavioral assessment of cagemates living with conspecifics submitted to chronic restraint stress in mice.

The capacity of rodents to recognize and respond to emotional signs from a conspecific is a valuable adaptive behavior, which provides essential skills for species survival. However, repeated exposure to aversive situations may elicit maladaptive behavioral responses in subjects that experience noxious episodes and their colony members. Previous findings by our group demonstrated that living with a subject in neuropathic pain induces anxiogenic-like behaviors and hypernociception in mice. Whereas chronic pain may be considered a stressful stimulus, we extended our findings on stress-induced emotional transfer. For this purpose, we investigated whether cohabitation with a partner subjected to chronic restraint stress was able to promote alterations in anxiety-like behaviors, pain sensibility and defensive responses. Male Swiss mice were housed in pairs for 14days and then separated into control, stress, and cagemate groups. The stress group was subjected to 14days of restraint stress (1h/day) in the presence of the cagemates, while the pair-housed control group was left undisturbed. A day after last stress session control, stress, and cagemate groups were evaluated using elevated plus maze test, writhing test, and rat exposure test. Results demonstrated that chronic stress attenuated weight gain in the stress group. Moreover, cohabitation with mice subjected to chronic restraint stress induced anxiogenic-like behaviors, pain hypernociception, and alterations in defensive responses in both cagemate and stress groups. These preliminary findings suggest that chronic exposure to aversive stimulus may induce behavioral alterations even in observers.

Constrangimento, contágio emocional e gestão: um estudo transcultural / Embarrassment, emotional contagion and management: a cross-cultural study

O presente estudo teve como objetivo conhecer em que medida a susceptibilidade ao contágio emocional e o constrangimento estão relacionados ao exercício do papel gerencial, ao sexo e ao nível educacional em um estudo comparativo entre Brasil e Angola. Participaram 431 trabalhadores (164 homens e 267 mulheres), 300 do Brasil e 131 de Angola, 71,5% com nível educacional superior ou pós-graduação, 37,8% exercendo função gerencial e idade média de 30 anos. Utilizou-se survey eletrônico para mensurar o Sentimento de Constrangimento e o Contágio Emocional. As soluções fatoriais dos construtos se revelaram distintas para ambos os países. Apenas em Angola, gestoras graduadas e pós-graduadas apresentaram menor grau de constrangimento que homens nas mesmas condições. No Brasil, o nível educacional modifca a susceptibilidade ao contágio de emoções positivas, considerando-se as variáveis função e sexo. Os resultados apontaram correlações positivas entre o constrangimento e o contágio emocional nos dois países.

This paper aimed to know if susceptibility to emotional contagion and embarrassment are related to management role, sex and educational level in a comparative study between Brazil and Angola. Participated 431 workers (164 men and 267 women), 300 from Brazil and 131 from Angola, 71,5% graduated or post-graduated, 37,8% working as managers and mean age was 30 years. An electronic survey was used to measure the Embarrassment Questionnaire and Emotional Contagion. Factorial solutions were distinct in both countries. Only in Angola, women in manager position at least graduated showed lower levels of embarrassment than men in the same conditions. In Brazil, the educational level modifes the susceptibility to contagion of positive emotions, considering the variables management role and sex. The results showed positive correlations between embarrassment and emotional contagion in both countries.

Inteligência e contágio emocional: um estudo com trabalhadores brasileiros e angolanos / Emotional intelligence and contagion: a study with Brazilian and Angolan workers

O estudo comparou trabalhadores brasileiros e angolanos em relação à inteligência emocional e ao contágio de emoções, considerando função gerencial, sexo e nível educacional. Participaram 431 trabalhadores, sendo 300 do Brasil e 131 de Angola, 71,5% com ensino superior, 37,8% exercendo função gerencial e idade média de 30 anos. Utilizou-se um survey eletrônico. Os resultados indicaram diferenças entreos países quanto à inteligência, mas não ao contágio. No Brasil, mulheres e gestores obtiveram médias mais elevadas de inteligência emocional, e em Angola, mulheres com ensino superior apresentaram maiores médias de inteligência emocional. Em relação ao contágio de emoções positivas, mulheres gestoras com ensino superior se contagiam menos que homens na mesma posição. Encontraram-se correlações positivas entre inteligência emocional e contágio

This study compared Brazilian and Angolan workers in emotional intelligence and contagion, considering their managerial position, sex, and educational level. Participants were 431 workers, 300 from Brazil and 131 from Angola, 71.5% with a higher education, 37.8% in a management position, and a mean age of 30 years. They answered an electronic questionnaire. Results indicate there are differences in emotional intelligence, but no differences were found for contagion. In Brazil women and managers had higher average of emotional intelligence mean while in Angola women with a higher education had higher average of emotional intelligence. For the contagion of positive emotions, women managers with a higher education were less contagioned than men managers. The results showed positive correlations between emotional intelligence and contagion

O sentimento de constrangimento: evidências acerca do contágio emocional e do gênero / Explaining the embarrassment feeling: emotional contagion and gender evidences

O objetivo deste estudo foi saber em que medida o sentimento de constrangimento experimentado em diversas circunstâncias sociais poderia ser explicado pelo contágio emocional e gênero. Tratou-se de um estudo correlacional, com a participação de 325 pessoas, a maioria do sexo feminino (65,7 por cento), com idade entre 14 e 75 anos (média= 26,7; desvio-padrão= 10,40). Um terço era formado por membros da população geral e os demais eram estudantes (87,7 por cento universitários; 12,3 por cento secundaristas). Todos responderam individualmente ao Questionário de Sentimento de Constrangimento, à Escala de Contágio Emocional e a um conjunto de perguntas demográficas. Os resultados indicaram que a pontuação total de constrangimento e seus fatores específicos se correlacionaram negativamente com o contágio emocional. As mulheres apresentaram maior pontuação nas dimensões de constrangimento do que os homens. Os resultados foram analisados com base nas atuais teorias acerca da emoção, considerando igualmente a perspectiva de gênero.

This study aimed to comprehend the extension of emotional contagion and gender influences on the embarrassment experienced in several social circumstances. It was a correlational study, with 325 participants, 65 percent of which were female, all aged from 14 to 75 years old (media= 26.7; standard deviation= 10.4). The sample group included students, 87.7 percent of them were from the local university, 12.3 percent were high school students, and the rest of the group were from the general population. They answered individually the Embarrassment Questionnaire, the Emotional Contagion Scale, and also a set of demographic questions. Results showed that the total score of embarrassment and its specific factors are negatively correlated to the emotional contagion. Women have presented higher scores on embarrassment dimensions. These findings were analyzed based on the present theories of emotions, as well as on a gender perspective.