Serum Folate, Red Blood Cell Folate, and Zinc Serum Levels Are Related with Gestational Weight Gain and Offspring's Birth-Weight of Adolescent Mothers.

BACKGROUND: Gestational weight gain below or above the Institute of Medicine recommendations has been associated with adverse perinatal and neonatal outcomes. Very few studies have evaluated the association between serum and red blood cell folate concentrations and gestational weight gain in adolescents. Additionally, zinc deficiency during pregnancy has been associated with impaired immunity, prolonged labor, preterm and post-term birth, intrauterine growth restriction, low birth weight, and pregnancy-induced hypertension. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of our study is to evaluate the association between serum concentrations of zinc, serum folate, and red blood cell folate, with the increase in gestational weight and the weight and length of the newborn in a group of adolescent mothers from Mexico City. RESULTS: In our study, 406 adolescent-neonate dyads participated. The adolescents' median age was 15.8 years old. The predominant socioeconomic level was middle-low (57.8%), single (57%), 89.9% were engaged in home activities, and 41.3% completed secondary education. Excessive gestational weight gain was observed in 36.7% of cases, while insufficient gestational weight gain was noted in 38.4%. Small for gestational age infants were observed in 20.9% of the sample. Low serum folate (OR 2.1, 95% CI 1.3-3.3), decreased red blood cell folate (OR 1.6, 95% CI 1.0-2.6), and reduced serum zinc concentrations (OR 3.3, 95% CI 2.1-5.2) were associated with insufficient gestational weight gain. Decreased serum zinc levels (OR 1.2, 95% CI 1.2-3.4) were linked to an increased probability of delivering a baby who is small for their gestational age. CONCLUSIONS: Low serum folate, red blood cell folate, and serum zinc concentrations were associated with gestational weight gain and having a small gestational age baby. Both excessive and insufficient gestational weight gain, as well as having a small gestational age baby, are frequent among adolescent mothers.

Effect of a Diet-Induced Obesity on the Progeny Response in a Murine Model.

Diet-induced obesity could have detrimental effects on adults and their progeny. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of a high-energy diet on both F1 mice body weight and tissue/organ weight and F2 offspring growth. A simple murine model for obesity was developed using a high-energy diet and mice reared in litters of five or ten, from 30 dams receiving a cafeteria diet of either commercial chow (low energy), or a mixture of commercial chow, chocolate (50% cacao), and salty peanuts (high energy). This diet continued from mating until weaning, when the pups were allocated according to sex into eight groups based on maternal diet, litter size, and post-weaning diet. On day 74, the males were slaughtered, and the females were bred then slaughtered after lactation. As a result, the high-energy maternal diet increased the F1 offspring growth during lactation, while the high-energy post-weaning diet increased the F1 adult body weight and tissue/organ weight. The high-energy maternal diet could negatively affect the onset of the F1 but not the maintenance of breastfeeding of F1 and F2 offspring. For F2 offspring growth, the high energy overlapped the low-energy post-weaning diet, due to problems of gaining weight during lactation.

Maternal dietary patterns and acute leukemia in infants: results from a case control study in Mexico.

Background: Childhood cancer is the leading cause of disease-related mortality among children aged 5-14 years in Mexico, with acute leukemia being the most common cancer among infants. Examining the overall dietary patterns allows for a comprehensive assessment of food and nutrient consumption, providing a more predictive measure of disease risk than individual foods or nutrients. This study aims to evaluate the association between maternal dietary patterns during pregnancy and the risk of acute leukemia in Mexican infants. Methods: A hospital-based case-control study was conducted, comparing 109 confirmed acute leukemia cases with 152 age-matched controls. All participants (≤24 months) were identified at hospitals in Mexico City between 2010 and 2019. Data on a posteriori dietary patterns and other relevant variables were collected through structured interviews and dietary questionnaires. Multivariate logistic regression was employed to estimate the association between maternal dietary patterns during pregnancy and the risk of acute leukemia in infants. Results: The "Balanced & Vegetable-Rich" pattern, characterized by a balanced consumption of various food groups and higher vegetable intake, exhibited a negative association with acute leukemia when compared to the "High Dairy & Cereals" Pattern (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 0.51; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.29, 0.90). We observed that mothers who gave birth to girls and adhered to a healthy dietary pattern during pregnancy exhibited significantly lower odds of their children developing AL compared to those who gave birth to boys [OR = 0.32 (95% CI 0.11, 0.97)]. Our results underscore the significance of maternal nutrition as a modifiable factor in disease prevention and the importance of prenatal health education.

Prenatal dietary patterns in relation to adolescent offspring adiposity and adipokines in a Mexico City cohort.

Maternal diet during pregnancy has been associated with obesity among offspring. The extent to which trimester-specific dietary patterns are associated with markers of adiposity during adolescence remains unclear. We examined associations between prenatal diet patterns with adolescent offspring measures of adiposity and adipokines in 384 mother-adolescent dyads from the Mexico City ELEMENT cohort. Trimester-specific diet patterns were derived from principal component analysis of food frequency questionnaire data. Adolescent anthropometry and serum leptin and adiponectin were measured at 10-17 years. Three maternal diet patterns were identified: Prudent Diet (PD), high in fish and vegetables, the High Meat and Fat Diet (HMFD), high in pork and processed meats, and the Transitioning Mexican Diet (TMD), high in corn tortillas and sugar-sweetened beverages. Multiple linear regression was used to estimate sex-stratified associations among quartiles of diet patterns with adiposity and adipokines, adjusting for maternal marital status, education, and parity. First trimester TMD was associated with greater anthropometric measures and higher leptin in females, while third trimester HMFD was associated higher body fat percentage, triceps thickness, waist circumference, and leptin, but lower adiponectin among males. Contrary to expectation, there were positive associations between the trimester 1 PD pattern and anthropometric measurements in females, and for trimester 2 HMFD and TMD patterns with adipokines among males. Findings suggest maternal diet patterns may influence offspring adiposity markers during adolescence in a sex-specific manner.

Maternal diet in pregnancy and acute leukemia in infants: a case-control study in Mexico City.

Introduction: Epidemiological studies around the world on acute leukemia (AL) and risk factors in infants are scarce. Infant AL has been proposed to originate in utero, which facilitates its study by establishing a short exposure time in pregnant women to environmental and dietary factors that could contribute to the risk of or protection against leukemia. We hypothesized that maternal diet during pregnancy may be an important factor involved in AL in offspring. Methods: We conducted a hospital-based case-control study from 2010 to 2019 on maternal diet during pregnancy in nine high-specialty public hospitals of different health institutions that diagnose and offer treatment to children with AL in Mexico City. Cases (n=109) were children ≤24 months of age with de novo diagnosis of AL, and controls (n=252) were children obtained in hospitals from second-level medical care matched for age, sex, and health institution. Maternal diet during pregnancy was obtained by a semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire. Unconditional logistic regression models were used to assess the association between food groups and infant AL. Potential confounders were assessed by constructing directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) with Dagitty software in which adjusted options were identified for the construction of unconditional logistic regression models. Results: Cases were slightly predominantly female (52.3%). The years of education of the mother in cases and controls was 0-9 on average, and those who reported smoking cigarettes and consuming alcohol during pregnancy did so at a low frequency. Regarding the mother's diet, the main findings were that the consumption of allium vegetables during pregnancy was inversely associated with AL for medium and high consumption (OR=0.26, 95% CI 0.14-0.46; P-trend< 0.001). In contrast, the high consumption of high-fat dairy products had a positive association with AL (OR=2.37, 95% CI 1.30-4.34; P-trend<0.001). No association was found between consumption of topoisomerase II inhibitor foods during pregnancy and AL. Conclusion: The results suggest that maternal intake during pregnancy of allium vegetables, specifically garlic, is inversely associated with the development of AL in children ≤24 months old. On the other hand, consumption of high-fat dairy products is positively associated with AL in children ≤24 months old.

Maternal Consumption of Ultra-Processed Foods-Rich Diet and Perinatal Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

The consumption of ultra-processed food (UPF)-rich diets represents a potential threat to human health. Considering maternal diet adequacy during pregnancy is a major determinant for perinatal health outcomes, this study aimed to systematically review and meta-analyze studies investigating the association between maternal consumption of a UPF-rich diet and perinatal outcomes. Conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines, five electronic databases and gray literature using Google Scholar and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global were searched up to 31 May 2022. No restrictions were applied on language and publication date. Two reviewers independently conducted the study selection and data extraction process. Meta-analysis was conducted according to the random-effects model. In total, 61 studies were included in the systematic review and the overall population comprised 698,803 women from all gestational trimesters. Meta-analysis of cohort studies showed that maternal consumption of UPF-rich diets was associated with an increased risk of gestational diabetes mellitus (odds ratio (OR): 1.48; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.17, 1.87) and preeclampsia (OR: 1.28; 95% CI: 1.15, 1.42). Neonatal outcomes showed no association. The overall GRADE quality of the evidence for the associations was very low. The findings highlight the need to monitor and reduce UPF consumption, specifically during the gestational period, as a strategy to prevent adverse perinatal outcomes.

Low protein diet during lactation programs hepatic metabolism in adult male and female rats.

The liver is an essential regulator of energy metabolism, and its function can be disrupted by nutritional alterations. Since liver development continues during breastfeeding nutritional challenges during this period predispose patients to diseases throughout life. A maternal protein-restricted (PR) diet during lactation promotes reductions in the body weight, adiposity, and plasma glucose and insulin, leptin resistance and an increase in corticosterone and catecholamines in adult male rat offspring. Here, we investigated hepatic metabolism in the offspring (both sexes) of PR (8% protein diet during lactation) and control (23% protein diet) dams. Both male and female offspring were evaluated at 6 months of age. PR males had no liver steatosis and manifested a reduction in lipids in hepatocytes adjacent to the vasculature. These animals had lower levels of esterified cholesterol in hepatocytes, suggesting higher biliary excretion, unchanged glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, and lower contents of the markers of mitochondrial redox balance and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response and estrogen receptor alpha. PR females showed normal hepatic morphology associated with higher uptake of cholesterol esters, normal glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, and lower ER stress parameters without changes in the key markers of the redox balance. Additionally, these animals had lower content of estrogen receptor alpha and higher content of androgen receptor. The maternal PR diet during lactation did not program hepatic lipid accumulation in the adult progeny. However, several repair homeostasis pathways were altered in males and females, possibly compromising maintenance of normal liver function.

Reduced n-3 and n-6 PUFA (DHA and AA) Concentrations in Breast Milk and Erythrocytes Phospholipids during Pregnancy and Lactation in Women with Obesity.

Obesity during pregnancy is a worrying public health problem worldwide. Maternal diet is critical for fatty acid (FA) placental transport and FA content in breast milk (BM). We evaluated FA composition in erythrocytes phospholipids (EP) and BM in pregnant women with (OBE, n = 30) and without (non-OBE, n = 31) obesity. Sixty-one healthy women were evaluated at their 20-24th gestational week and followed until 6th month of lactation. Diet was evaluated through a food frequency questionnaire. FA composition of EP and BM was assessed by gas-liquid chromatography. The OBE group showed lower diet quality, but total n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated FA (PUFA), ALA, EPA, and DHA dietary intake was similar between groups. N-3 PUFA, ALA, DHA, and the n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio in EP were lower at the 6th lactation month in the OBE group. In BM, the arachidonic acid (AA) concentration was lower at the end of the lactation, and DHA content showed an earlier and constant decline in the OBE group compared to the non-OBE group. In conclusion, n-3 PUFA and AA and DHA levels were reduced in EP and BM in pregnant women with obesity. Strategies to increase n-3 PUFA are urgently needed during pregnancy and lactation, particularly in women with obesity.

Intergenerational high-fat diet impairs ovarian follicular development in rodents: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

CONTEXT: Excessive consumption of high-fat diets has increased in the population over time and is harmful to female fertility. OBJECTIVE: To investigate and discuss the effects of a high-fat diet on ovarian follicles in rodents. DATA SOURCE: A systematic literature search of PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, and SCOPUS was carried out. DATA EXTRACTION: Study characteristics, including study design, population, intervention, outcome, and risk of bias were analyzed. DATA ANALYSIS: Twenty-two articles were included in a systematic review. Given the availability of studies, a quantitative meta-analysis included 12 studies that were performed for outcomes. There was a decrease in primordial follicles in female rodents that received a high-fat diet compared with the standard diet group. The offspring of mothers exposed to a high-fat diet showed an increased number of cystic follicles and a decreased number of secondary follicles and antral follicles, compared with the control diet group. Therefore, these high-fat diet-induced follicular alterations might impair the fertility of dams and their female newborns. CONCLUSION: The consumption of a high-fat diet causes damage to ovarian follicular development, and this commitment will persist in the next generation. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION: PROSPERO registration no. CRD42019133865.

Unsaturated Fatty Acid Intake During Periconception and Incidence of Achieving Pregnancy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Background: Previous studies suggest that maternal diets enriched in unsaturated fatty acids may have a positive effect on pregnancy success. The aim of the present study was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate whether increased dietary intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) or monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) during the periconception period has beneficial effects on the achievement of pregnancy in women. Methods: The electronic databases PubMed, Medline and Cochrane Central Register, as well as references in related review articles, were searched to find studies assessing the effects of unsaturated fatty acid dietary intake during the periconception period on the achievement of pregnancy in women. Pregnancy was confirmed by high levels of hCG (biochemical means) and ultrasound confirmation of a gestational sac and heartbeat (clinical means). Results: For the meta-analysis evaluating the effects of periconceptional diets enriched in PUFAs on pregnancy, four articles, providing data on 2,121 patients, were included. Results showed that periconceptional intake of PUFAs has no significant effects on achieving pregnancy compared to controls, according to both the fixed effects and random effects models (RR = 0.99, 95% CI 0.98-1.00). Further secondary analysis considering ω-6 and ω-3 PUFAs separately showed no significant effects on achieving pregnancy compared to controls. On the other hand, for the meta-analysis evaluating the effects of periconceptional diets enriched in MUFAs on achieving pregnancy, five articles, providing data on 2,473 patients, were included. Results showed that periconceptional dietary intake of MUFAs has significant effects on achieving pregnancy compared to controls according to the fixed effects model (RR = 1.03, 95% CI 1.01-1.06, p < 0.02) but not to the random effects model, due to heterogeneity. A secondary meta-analysis excluding one study which led to heterogeneity showed significant effects of MUFAs on achieving pregnancy compared to controls, according to both the fixed effects and random effects models (RR = 1.03, 95% CI 1.01-1.05, p < 0.02). Conclusion: The meta-analysis of published clinical studies suggests that diets enriched in MUFAs, although not those enriched in PUFAs, may have a positive effect on pregnancy success as determined by HCG and ultrasonography. Systematic Review Registration: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/display_record.php?ID=CRD42021239355, identifier: CRD42021239355.

Role of Maternal Microbiota and Nutrition in Early-Life Neurodevelopmental Disorders.

The rise in the prevalence of obesity and other related metabolic diseases has been paralleled by an increase in the frequency of neurodevelopmental problems, which has raised the likelihood of a link between these two phenomena. In this scenario, maternal microbiota is a possible linking mechanistic pathway. According to the "Developmental Origins of Health and Disease" paradigm, environmental exposures (in utero and early life) can permanently alter the body's structure, physiology, and metabolism, increasing illness risk and/or speeding up disease progression in offspring, adults, and even generations. Nutritional exposure during early developmental stages may induce susceptibility to the later development of human diseases via interactions in the microbiome, including alterations in brain function and behavior of offspring, as explained by the gut-brain axis theory. This review provides an overview of the implications of maternal nutrition on neurodevelopmental disorders and the establishment and maturation of gut microbiota in the offspring.

Effects of Maternal Grape Juice Intake on Unfolded Protein Response in the Mammary Glands of Offspring of High Fat Diet Fed Rat Dams.

Maternal high fat diet (HFD) and obesity during pregnancy increase female offspring's mammary cancer risk in animal studies. We aimed to observe whether the consumption of grape juice during pregnancy can reverse this risk. During pregnancy and lactation, female Wistar rats were fed either a control or HFD and also received grape juice or tap water. At the age of 50 days, female offspring were euthanized, and mammary glands were collected to assess changes in biomarkers of increased mammary cancer risk. Maternal HFD increased the number of terminal end buds in offspring's mammary glands and promoted cell proliferation (ki67). Maternal grape consumption blocked these effects. Apoptosis marker caspase 7, but not caspase 3, was reduced in the HFD offspring. HFD offspring also exhibited a reduction in the indicators of cell cycle regulation (p27, p21) and an ability to maintain DNA integrity (reduced p53). Maternal grape juice did not have any effect on these endpoints in the HFD offspring but reduced caspase 7 and p53 levels in the control offspring, perhaps reflecting reduced cellular stress. Maternal HFD increased oxidative stress marker GPx1 mRNA expression, and grape juice increased the levels of GPx2 in both the control and HFD offspring. HFD increased XBP1/Xbp1s, Atf4 and Atf6 mRNA expression and reduced ATF6 and CHOP protein levels. Maternal grape juice reversed the increase in XBP1/Xbp1s, Atf4 and Atf6 in the HFD offspring. PPAR was downregulated in the HFD group, and grape juice reversed this effect. Grape juice also reduced the levels of HER2 and IRS, both in the control and HFD offspring. In conclusion, maternal grape juice supplementation reversed some of the biomarkers that are indicative of increased breast cancer risk in the HFD offspring.

Dietary patterns and diet quality during pregnancy and low birthweight: The PRINCESA cohort.

Although the isolated effects of several specific nutrients have been examined, little is known about the relationship between overall maternal diet during pregnancy and fetal development and growth. This study evaluates the association between maternal diet and low birthweight (LBW) in 660 pregnant women from the Pregnancy Research on Inflammation, Nutrition,& City Environment: Systematic Analyses (PRINCESA) cohort in Mexico City. Using prior day dietary intake reported at multiple prenatal visits, diet was assessed prospectively using a priori (Maternal Diet Quality Score [MDQS]) and a posteriori (dietary patterns extracted by factor analysis) approaches. The association between maternal diet and LBW was investigated by logistic regression, controlling for confounders. Adherence to recommended guidelines (higher MDQS) was associated with a reduced risk of LBW (OR, 0.22; 95% confidence interval [0.06, 0.75], P < .05, N = 49) compared with the lowest adherence category (reference group), controlling for maternal age, education, height, marital status, pre-pregnancy body mass index, parity, energy intake, gestational weight gain, and preterm versus term birth; a posteriori dietary patterns were not associated with LBW risk. Higher adherence to MDQS was associated with a lower risk of having an LBW baby in this sample. Our results support the role of advocating a healthy overall diet, versus individual foods or nutrients, in preventing LBW.

Reduced astrocytic expression of GFAP in the offspring of female rats that received hypercaloric diet.

Introduction: Obesity promotes hypothalamic inflammation and local morphological changes in astrocytes, including the increased expression of the astrocytic biomarker glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), which is seen as a sign of neuroinflammation.Objective: This study aimed to observe the astrocytic expression of GFAP in different brain areas from female rats that received a hypercaloric (HD) or a normocaloric (ND) diet during puberty (F0 generation) as well as in their male pups (F1 generation).Methods: Female rats received highly palatable HD (Ensure®) or ND from postnatal day (PND) 23-65. On PND90-95, some were euthanized for the immunohistochemical study and some were mated to obtain the F1 generation. Male pups were immunochallenged on PND50 with lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 100 µg/kg) or 0.9% saline solution (1 mL/kg) intraperitoneal injection. Body weight (BW) and retroperitoneal fat weight (RFW) were recorded on PND95 for F0 generation and on PND50 for F1 generation. GFAP expression for both generations was assessed by morphometry in the parietal/frontal cortex, corpus callosum, nucleus accumbens, arcuate/periventricular nuclei of hypothalamus, pons, molecular/granular layers of cerebellum.Results: Female rats fed with HD presented a significant increase in the GFAP expression in all evaluated areas as well as in the RFW. Male rats born from mothers that received HD showed decreased GFAP expression, BW and RFW when treated with LPS in relation to those from mothers fed with ND.Discussion: HD induced astrogliosis in several brain areas in females from F0 generation and an adaptive phenotypic change of decreased GFAP expression in males from F1 generation after LPS challenge.

Açaí (Euterpe oleracea Martius) supplementation in the diet during gestation and lactation attenuates liver steatosis in dams and protects offspring.

PURPOSE: Maternal high-fat diet affects offspring and can induce metabolic disorders such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). New therapeutic strategies are being investigated as way to prevent or attenuate this condition. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of açaí supplementation in the maternal high-fat diet on dams and offspring lipid metabolism. METHODS: Female Fisher rats were divided in four groups and fed a control diet (C), a high-fat diet (HF), an açaí supplemented diet (CA) and a high-fat diet supplemented with açaí (HFA) 2 weeks before mating, during gestation and lactation. The effects of açaí were evaluated in the male offspring after birth (P1) and weaning (P21). RESULTS: HFA reduced relative liver weight, fat and cholesterol liver content in dams and improved liver steatosis as confirmed by histological analyses. HFA increased serum cholesterol and expression of Srebpf1 and Fasn genes. In offspring, HFA decreased relative liver weight, and serum cholesterol only in P21. An increase in the Sirt1, Srebpf1 and Fasn genes expression was observed in P21. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that açaí supplementation may attenuate NAFLD in dams and protect offspring from the detrimental effects of lipid excess from a maternal high-fat diet.

Consumption of a high-fat diet does not potentiate the deleterious effects on lipid and protein levels and body development in rats subjected to maternal protein restriction.

Maternal undernutrition may cause injuries in several organs of the offspring, as well as lead to diseases in adulthood. Obesity and/or the consumption of a high-fat diet may also induce metabolic and cardiorespiratory diseases. We hypothesized that the consumption of a post-weaning high-fat diet would potentiate the deleterious effects of maternal protein undernutrition. This study evaluated the effects of the association of a low-protein diet during gestation and lactation with a post-weaning high-fat diet on the biochemical and ventilatory parameters of rats. Male Wistar rats from mothers who received a low-protein (9% of protein) or normoprotein diet during pregnancy and lactation received a high-fat (32% of total kilocalories from lipids) or a normal fat diet after weaning. Mass gain and somatic growth of the offspring were monitored. Also examined were biochemical chemical parameters and respiratory frequency, tidal volume (volume of air displaced in each normal respiratory cycle when extra effort is not applied), and pulmonary ventilation. Offspring from undernourished mothers presented lower birth weight (P = .0225), which remained until the end of lactation (P < .01). The rats that consumed high-fat diet and had been submitted to maternal undernutrition presented higher tidal volume when compared to the ones that consumed control diet at the 21st day of life (P Ë‚ .05). At 30 and 90 days, no further ventilatory changes were observed. Our data show that the consumption of a high-fat diet post-weaning did not seem to potentiate the changes induced by maternal undernutrition.

The Human Milk Microbiota is Modulated by Maternal Diet.

Human milk microorganisms contribute not only to the healthy development of the immune system in infants, but also in shaping the gut microbiota. We evaluated the effect of the maternal diet during pregnancy and during the first month of lactation on the human milk microbiota in a cross-sectional study including 94 healthy lactating women. Microbiota composition was determined by 16S rDNA profiling and nutrient intake assessed through food questionnaires. Thirteen genera were present in at least 90% of all samples, with three genera present in all samples: Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, and Corynebacterium. Cluster analysis indicated two distinct compositions: one marked by a high abundance of Streptococcus (cluster 1), and other by a high abundance of Staphylococcus (cluster 2). A global association with milk microbiota diversity was observed for vitamin C intake during pregnancy (p = 0.029), which was higher for cluster 2 individuals (cluster 2 median = 232 mg/d; cluster 1 = 175 mg/d; p = 0.02). Positive correlations were found between Bifidobacterium in the milk and intake of polyunsaturated and linoleic fatty acids during the lactation period (p < 0.01). We show that maternal diet influences the human milk microbiota, especially during pregnancy, which may contribute in shaping the gut microbiota.

Gestational weight gain trajectories over pregnancy and their association with maternal diet quality: Results from the PRINCESA cohort.

OBJECTIVE: The aims of this study were to characterize, among pregnant Mexican women, gestational weight gain (GWG) trajectories; assess associations of maternal dietary quality score (MDQS) with GWG during early-mid pregnancy, middle pregnancy, late pregnancy, and prolonged pregnancy; and evaluate the association between MDQS and adequacy of GWG, throughout pregnancy. We hypothesized that higher MDQS adherence is protective against insufficient or excessive GWG across pregnancy and that the association between MDQS adherence and GWG would vary by prepregnancy body mass index (BMI) category. METHODS: We analyzed data from 660 pregnant women participating in the PRINCESA (Pregnancy Research on Inflammation, Nutrition and City Environments: Systematic Analyses) cohort in Mexico City, 2009 to 2014. Repeated measures of dietary intake and mother's weight were obtained during pregnancy. Individual GWG trajectories were modeled in a multilevel regression framework. Associations between MDQS (low, medium, and high adherence) and GWG were investigated using mixed-effect regression models with linear splines. RESULTS: Women with prepregnancy BMI of ≥30 kg/m2 had a slower rate of GWG (RGWG) compared with other categories. A higher adherence to MDQS was protective against an insufficient (odds ratio [OR], 0.63; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.42-0.95; P = 0.03) and an excessive RGWG (OR, 0.62; 95% CI, 0.41-0.94; P = 0.03) throughout pregnancy, adjusting for prepregnancy BMI, energy intake, maternal age, educational level, parity, fetal sex, marital status, and physical activity. Associations between diet and RGWG differed by gestational period. CONCLUSION: A better quality diet, as measured by MDQS, was associated with appropriate GWG during pregnancy in the PRINCESA cohort.

Adherence to dietary patterns during pregnancy and association with maternal characteristics in pregnant Brazilian women.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to investigate food consumption during pregnancy by determining dietary patterns, associations with maternal characteristics, and possible changes in adherence to patterns throughout pregnancy. METHODS: We prospectively followed two groups of pregnant women (N = 353) and collected, in each gestational trimester, two 24-h dietary recalls: one in person and another by telephone, with one of these recalls performed on a weekend or holiday. To determine the women's dietary patterns, principal component analysis was conducted using the combined data of groups and trimesters. The association between adherence to patterns and maternal characteristics was investigated using a logistic regression model, including covariates as potential confounders. Changes in adherence throughout the trimesters by the means difference test also were examined. RESULTS: Three dietary patterns were identified: traditional Brazilian; predominantly ultra-processed and beef; and whole grains, fruits, vegetables, low-fat milk, and dairy. Associations were found between adherence to patterns and not working outside the home, not being white, being younger, not living with a partner, drinking alcohol before pregnancy, years of formal education, and socioeconomic classification. Adherence to the traditional Brazilian pattern increased as gestational trimesters advanced, whereas the pattern that included whole grains, fruits, vegetables, low-fat milk, and milk derivatives decreased from the first to the second gestational trimester. CONCLUSION: We found associations between maternal sociodemographic characteristics and adherence to different dietary patterns, as well as changes in adherence during pregnancy. This knowledge is relevant to creating specific and feasible guidelines for different population strata associated with the patterns.

A maternal high-fat/high-caloric diet delays reflex ontogeny during lactation but enhances locomotor performance during late adolescence in rats.

Objective: The main goal of the present study was to investigate the effects of two maternal high-fat diets with different energy densities on the somatic growth, reflex ontogeny, and locomotor activity of offspring. Methods: Twenty-nine female Wistar rats (220-250 g) were mated and grouped into three different dietary conditions: control (n = 11, AIN-93G diet, 3.6 kcal/g), high-fat/high-caloric (HH, n = 9, 51% of the calories from fat, 4.62 kcal/g), and high-fat/isocaloric (HI, n = 9, 51% of the calories from fat, 3.64 kcal/g). The fat source was mainly lard. The dietary groups were maintained during gestation and lactation. From postnatal day 1 (PND1) until weaning, the somatic growth, maturation of physical features, and reflex ontogeny of the male pups were evaluated. The locomotor activity was evaluated in an open field at PND8, PND14, PND17, PND21, PND30, PND45, and PND60. Results: HH dams had a lower food intake but no difference in caloric intake or body weight gain. The HH pups had higher body weights, greater tail and body lengths, and an increased axis of the head at weaning. The prediction of ear unfolding, delayed palmar grasp, and cliff avoidance maturation were also observed in the HH offspring. At PND60, the HH pups showed an increased average speed as well as an average potency and kinetic energy in the open field. Conclusion: A high-fat/high-caloric maternal diet increases somatic growth, predicts the maturation of physical features, and delays reflex ontogeny during lactation, and it enhances motor performance during late adolescence. A maternal HI diet does not elicit the same influences on offspring development compared with the HH diet.