[From physician paternalism to patient autonomy: 25 centuries of history]. / Entre el paternalismo médico y la autonomía de los pacientes: 25 siglos de historia.

From its origins, the doctor-patient relationship accompanied the social and cultural changes that have been modeling different forms of interhuman relationships. However, paternalism remained almost unchanged. Only in the 1970s, hand in hand with postmodern thought and the centrality of ethical, psychological, social and anthropological disciplines, respect for the autonomy of patients began to develop, which constituted the essence of a radical change. "Four models of doctor-patient relationship" are described depending on the objectives of the interaction between the actors, the doctor's obligations and the patient's values. Some particularities are detailed in the decision-making of children and adolescents, the doctrine of the mature minor, and progressive autonomy where the need for informed consent that reflects the autonomy of this age group is evident. It is worth highlighting the importance of communication in the development of a relationship in which the different models can collaborate with a genuine practice of autonomy for patients and their families.

Desde sus orígenes, la relación médico-paciente acompañó los cambios sociales y culturales que han ido modelando diferentes formas vinculares interhumanas. Sin embargo, el paternalismo se mantuvo casi inalterable. Recién en la década del 70, con el pensamiento posmoderno y las disciplinas éticas, psicológicas, sociales y antropológicas, comenzó a desarrollarse el respeto hacia la autonomía de los pacientes. Se describen "cuatro modelos de relación médico-paciente" en función de los objetivos de la interacción entre los actores, las obligaciones del médico y los valores del paciente. Se detallan algunas particularidades en la toma de decisiones de niñas, niños y adolescentes, la doctrina del menor maduro y la autonomía progresiva, que evidencia la necesidad de un consentimiento informado que refleje el reconocimiento de este grupo etario. Es fundamental la comunicación en el desarrollo de una relación en la que los diferentes modelos puedan colaborar con una genuina práctica de la autonomía de los pacientes y sus familias.

A bit of medical paternalism? A qualitative study on power relations between women and healthcare providers when deciding on mode of birth in five public maternity wards of Argentina.

BACKGROUND: Whether women should be able to decide on mode of birth in healthcare settings has been a topic of debate in the last few decades. In the context of a marked increase in global caesarean section rates, a central dilemma is whether pregnant women should be able to request this procedure without medical indication. Since 2015, Law 25,929 of Humanised Birth is in place in Argentina. This study aims at understanding the power relations between healthcare providers, pregnant women, and labour companions regarding decision-making on mode of birth in this new legal context. To do so, central concepts of power theory are used. METHODS: This study uses a qualitative design. Twenty-six semi-structured interviews with healthcare providers were conducted in five maternity wards in different regions of Argentina. Participants were purposively selected using heterogeneity sampling and included obstetrician/gynaecologists (heads of department, specialists working in 24-h shifts, and residents) and midwives where available. Reflexive thematic analysis was used to inductively develop themes and categories. RESULTS: Three themes were developed: (1) Healthcare providers reconceptualize decision-making processes of mode of birth to make women's voices matter; (2) Healthcare providers feel powerless against women's request to choose mode of birth; (3) Healthcare providers struggle to redirect women's decision regarding mode of birth. An overarching theme was built to explain the power relations between healthcare providers, women and labour companions: Healthcare providers' loss of beneficial power in decision-making on mode of birth. CONCLUSIONS: Our analysis highlights the complexity of the healthcare provider-woman interaction in a context in which women are, in practice, allowed to choose mode of birth. Even though healthcare providers claim to welcome women being an active part of the decision-making processes, they feel powerless when women make autonomous decisions regarding mode of birth. They perceive themselves to be losing beneficial power in the eyes of patients and consider fruitful communication on risks and benefits of each mode of birth to not always be possible. At the same time, providers perform an increasing number of CSs without medical indication when it is convenient for them, which suggests that paternalistic practices are still in place.

In the last few decades, there has been a debate on whether women should be able to choose if they haver a vaginal birth or a caesarean section. This debate has been framed by the fact that an increasing number of caesarean sections are being performed. Since 2015, Argentina has a Law of Humanised Birth. We conducted a study to understand the power relations between healthcare providers, pregnant women and labour companions in decision making on mode of birth in this new legal context. To do so, we used central concepts of power theory. We conducted 26 semi-structured interviews with healthcare providers in five maternity wards of Argentina. The interviewees were obstetrician/gynaecologists (heads of department, specialists working in 24-h shifts, and residents) and midwives where available. We used thematic analysis to build themes from the data. We discovered that healthcare providers perceive themselves to be losing beneficial power in decision-making on mode of birth. Even though they claim to want women to make autonomous decisions, they feel frustrated when this happens. They also perceive it to be more difficult to communicate with patients regarding the risks and benefits of vaginal birth and caesarean section. At the same time, providers carry out an increasing number of CSs without medical indication when it is convenient for them, which suggests that paternalistic practices are still in place.

Cultural Differences in Patients' Preferences for Paternalism: Comparing Mexican and American Patients' Preferences for and Experiences with Physician Paternalism and Patient Autonomy.

Following up on previous research demonstrating the high level of care realized by a paternalistic Mexican physician, the present research further explored the hypothesis that there are cultural differences in preferences for and experiences with physician paternalism vs. patient autonomy in White American culture as compared with Mexican culture. In this research, we interviewed sixty (60) people including twenty (20) Mexican, twenty (20) Mexican American, and twenty (20) White American respondents. We asked these patients about their experiences with and attitudes towards paternalism and patient autonomy in healthcare interactions. With some caveats, our data showed strong support for both hypotheses while also suggesting a high level of care can be realized by paternalistic physicians when "paternalism" is understood in a cultural context. We close with a brief consideration of the implications of these findings.

Adherencia terapéutica en adultos mayores con hipertensión y diabetes mellitus tipo II: una aproximación cualitativa

Objetivo: Explorar y describir dimensiones que afectan la adherencia terapéutica en personas mayores con hipertensión o diabetes tipo 2 en Araucanía, Chile. Metodología: Investigación cualitativa, etnográfica y descriptiva, que se aborda con análisis de contenido según Bardin. Corresponde a una primera fase de un estudio exploratorio, en la que se realizan dos grupos focales, con participación de 12 personas mayores de 70 años con hipertensión, diabetes tipo 2 o ambas. Resultados: Se describen trece categorías emergentes, tres in vivo (ser carga para otras personas, obtención de ayuda a partir del celular y vida empobrecida) y diez teóricas (edadismo, aislamiento y soledad, cultura popular para control de la patología, estructura familiar matriarcal, modelo biomédico arraigado, infravaloración del equipo no médico, paradoja de las expectativas no cumplidas, importancia de la participación social, el autocuidado, adherencia incompleta y fragmentada y riesgo de descompensación). Conclusión: La categoría ageísmo, aislamiento y soledad subyace a un mayor riesgo cardiovascular, por la dificultad que tienen las personas que sufren soledad para adherirse al tratamiento. La relación de ayuda se describe débilmente, prevaleciendo el paternalismo biomédico. Se requiere fortalecer estrategias participativas en el programa cardiovascular y actividades a partir de las necesidades de personas mayores.

Aim: To explore and describe the dimensions that affect the therapeutic adherence of elderly patients with high blood pressure and/or type 2 diabetes in Araucanía, Chile. Methods: This was a qualitative, ethnographic, and descriptive research that addressed its content analysis following Bardin. It corresponds to the first phase of an exploratory study in which two focus groups are carried out; the participants were 12 people over 70 years of age with hypertension and/or type 2 diabetes. Results: Thirteen emerging categories are described: three are in vivo (being a burden for others, getting help using the cellphone, and impoverished life), and ten are theoretical (ageism, isolation and loneliness, popular culture to control the pathology, matriarchal family structure, deep-rooted biomedical model, underestimation of the non-medical team, unfulfilled expectations paradox, importance of social participation, self-care, incomplete and fragmented adherence, and risk of decompensation). Conclusion: The ageism, isolation and loneliness categories present a greater cardiovascular risk due to the difficulty that people who suffer loneliness have to adhere to the treatment. The aid relationship is weakly described, and the biomedical paternalism prevails. It is necessary to strengthen participatory strategies in the cardiovascular program, and activities based on the needs of the elderly.

Objetivo: Explorar e descrever as dimensões que afetam a adesão terapêutica em idosos hipertensos e diabéticos tipo 2, Araucanía, Chile. Metodologia: Pesquisa qualitativa etnográfica, descritiva, abordada com a análise de conteúdo segundo Bardin. Corresponde à primeira fase de um estudo exploratório, no qual são realizados dois grupos focais, com a participação de 12 pessoas com mais de 70 anos com hipertensão, diabetes tipo 2 ou ambos. Resultados: Treze categorias emergentes são descritas, três in vivo; ser um fardo para os outros, obtendo ajuda do celular e da vida empobrecida, e dez teóricos; ageismo, isolamento e solidão, cultura popular para o controle da patologia, estrutura familiar matriarcal, modelo biomédico arraigado, subestimação da equipe não médica, paradoxo das expectativas não atendidas, importância da participação social, autocuidado, adesão incompleta e fragmentada e descompensação de risco. Conclusão: A categoria idade, isolamento e solidão está subjacente a um maior risco cardiovascular, devido à dificuldade que as pessoas que sofrem de solidão têm para aderir ao tratamento. A relação de ajuda é mal descrita, prevalecendo o paternalismo biomédico. É necessário fortalecer estratégias participativas no programa cardiovascular e atividades baseadas nas necessidades dos idosos.

Adherencia terapéutica en adultos mayores con hipertensión y diabetes mellitus tipo II: una aproximación cualitativa / Therapeutic adherence in elderly citizens with high blood pressure and type 2 diabetes: A qualitative approach

RESUMEN Objetivo: Explorar y describir dimensiones que afectan la adherencia terapéutica en personas mayores con hipertensión o diabetes tipo 2 en Araucanía, Chile. Metodología: Investigación cualitativa, etnográfica y descriptiva, que se aborda con análisis de contenido según Bardin. Corresponde a una primera fase de un estudio exploratorio, en la que se realizan dos grupos focales, con participación de 12 personas mayores de 70 años con hipertensión, diabetes tipo 2 o ambas. Resultados: Se describen trece categorías emergentes, tres in vivo (ser carga para otras personas, obtención de ayuda a partir del celular y vida empobrecida) y diez teóricas (edadismo, aislamiento y soledad, cultura popular para control de la patología, estructura familiar matriarcal, modelo biomédico arraigado, infravaloración del equipo no médico, paradoja de las expectativas no cumplidas, importancia de la participación social, el autocuidado, adherencia incompleta y fragmentada y riesgo de descompensación). Conclusión: La categoría ageísmo, aislamiento y soledad subyace a un mayor riesgo cardiovascular, por la dificultad que tienen las personas que sufren soledad para adherirse al tratamiento. La relación de ayuda se describe débilmente, prevaleciendo el paternalismo biomédico. Se requiere fortalecer estrategias participativas en el programa cardiovascular y actividades a partir de las necesidades de personas mayores.

ABSTRACT Aim: To explore and describe the dimensions that affect the therapeutic adherence of elderly patients with high blood pressure and/or type 2 diabetes in Araucanía, Chile. Methods: This was a qualitative, ethnographic, and descriptive research that addressed its content analysis following Bardin. It corresponds to the first phase of an exploratory study in which two focus groups are carried out; the participants were 12 people over 70 years of age with hypertension and/or type 2 diabetes. Results: Thirteen emerging categories are described: three are in vivo (being a burden for others, getting help using the cellphone, and impoverished life), and ten are theoretical (ageism, isolation and loneliness, popular culture to control the pathology, matriarchal family structure, deep-rooted biomedical model, underestimation of the non-medical team, unfulfilled expectations paradox, importance of social participation, self-care, incomplete and fragmented adherence, and risk of decompensation). Conclusion: The ageism, isolation and loneliness categories present a greater cardiovascular risk due to the difficulty that people who suffer loneliness have to adhere to the treatment. The aid relationship is weakly described, and the biomedical paternalism prevails. It is necessary to strengthen participatory strategies in the cardiovascular program, and activities based on the needs of the elderly.

RESUMO Objetivo: Explorar e descrever as dimensões que afetam a adesão terapêutica em idosos hipertensos e diabéticos tipo 2, Araucanía, Chile. Metodologia: Pesquisa qualitativa etnográfica, descritiva, abordada com a análise de conteúdo segundo Bardin. Corresponde à primeira fase de um estudo exploratório, no qual são realizados dois grupos focais, com a participação de 12 pessoas com mais de 70 anos com hipertensão, diabetes tipo 2 ou ambos. Resultados: Treze categorias emergentes são descritas, três in vivo; ser um fardo para os outros, obtendo ajuda do celular e da vida empobrecida, e dez teóricos; ageismo, isolamento e solidão, cultura popular para o controle da patologia, estrutura familiar matriarcal, modelo biomédico arraigado, subestimação da equipe não médica, paradoxo das expectativas não atendidas, importância da participação social, autocuidado, adesão incompleta e fragmentada e descompensação de risco. Conclusão: A categoria idade, isolamento e solidão está subjacente a um maior risco cardiovascular, devido à dificuldade que as pessoas que sofrem de solidão têm para aderir ao tratamento. A relação de ajuda é mal descrita, prevalecendo o paternalismo biomédico. É necessário fortalecer estratégias participativas no programa cardiovascular e atividades baseadas nas necessidades dos idosos.

Discussões sobre bioética, direito penal e pacientes testemunhas de Jeová / Discussions on bioethics, criminal law, and Jehovah's witness patients / Debates sobre bioética, derecho penal y pacientes testigos de Jehová

Resumo Este estudo tem como finalidade refletir sobre os aspectos bioéticos e jurídicos implicados na relação médico-paciente testemunha de Jeová. Para isso, o trabalho abordará, inicialmente, a relação médico-paciente diante dos impasses terapêuticos desse grupo de pacientes, estudando essa relação do ponto de vista histórico e elucidando os pontos acerca dos pacientes adeptos à religião. Em seguida, abordar-se-ão os princípios bioéticos envolvidos no cuidado do paciente testemunha de Jeová, discutindo cada princípio e sua incorporação ao atendimento desse grupo. Por fim, será discutida a abordagem jurídica à luz dos direitos fundamentais do paciente, caracterizando as normas constitucionais e penais que se aplicam ao cuidado dos profissionais de saúde a pacientes adeptos a essa religião.

Abstract This study aims to reflect on the bioethical and juridical aspects tied to the doctor-Jehovah's Witness patient relationship. To that end, the work will focus, initially, on the doctor-patient relationship faced with the therapeutic obstacles of this group of patients, studying the relationship from the historical standpoint and elucidating the topics about the patients of this religion. Then, we will focus on the bioethical principles involved in the care for Jehovah's Witness patients, discussing each principle and its incorporation to the care for this group. Finally, we will focus on the juridical approach in the light of the patient's fundamental rights, characterizing the constitutional and criminal norms that apply to the care of health professionals to patients of this religion.

Resumen Este estudio tiene como objetivo reflexionar sobre los aspectos bioéticos y legales involucrados en la relación médico-paciente de los testigos de Jehová. Para ello, se abordará inicialmente la relación médico-paciente ante los impasses terapéuticos de este grupo de pacientes desde la perspectiva histórica teniendo en cuenta a los pacientes practicantes de esta religión. Luego, se plantearán los principios bioéticos involucrados en el cuidado del paciente testigo de Jehová, discutiendo cada principio y su incorporación en la asistencia a este grupo. Por último, se discutirá el enfoque jurídico a la luz de los derechos fundamentales del paciente, caracterizando las normas constitucionales y penales que se aplican a la asistencia de los profesionales de la salud a los pacientes practicantes de esta religión.

¿Es posible obligar a las personas a vacunarse? Nudge contra el coronavirus / Is it possible to force people to be vaccinated? Nudge against coronavirus / É possível obrigar as pessoas a vacinar-se? Cutucar contra o coronavírus

Resumen: Sabemos que el mundo enfrenta una terrible pandemia. La ciencia, con esfuerzo y prontitud, ha podido desarrollar diversas vacunas contra el covid-19, generando ello grandes expectativas. Sin embargo, por diversos factores, los procesos masivos de vacunación no han avanzado a la velocidad requerida; uno de los principales es la resistencia de muchas personas a vacunarse, aduciendo diferentes razones. Frente a esta situación se ha oscilado entre la realización de campañas de publicidad hasta propuestas de imposición forzada. Una alternativa para ir más allá de lo meramente lírico y lo coercitivo es generar formas de motivación para que aquellas personas decidan voluntariamente vacunarse a través de diversas medidas, directas e indirectas, apelando a "Nudge" -o "teoría del pequeño empujón"-, con el fin de propiciar la mejor protección de la salud individual y colectiva, tema del que trata el presente artículo, a partir de la revisión bibliográfica sobre la materia y diversas experiencias en la lucha contra el coronavirus.

Abstract: We all know that the world is facing a terrible pandemic. Science, with effort and promptness, has been able to develop various vaccines against Covid-19, generating great expectations. However, mass vaccination processes have not advanced at the required speed due to various factors; one of the main ones is the resistance of many people to get vaccinated, for different reasons. Faced with this situation, it has oscillated between carrying out advertising campaigns to proposals for forced imposition. An alternative to go beyond the merely lyrical and coercive is to generate forms of motivation for those people to voluntarily decide to be vaccinated through various measures, direct and indirect, appealing to "Nudge" -or the "little push theory" - in order to promote the best protection of individual and collective health, the subject of this article, based on the bibliographic review on the matter and various experiences in the fight against coronavirus.

Resumo: Sabemos que o mundo enfrenta uma terrível pandemia. A ciência, com esforço e prontidão, pode desenvolver diversas vacinas contra a Covid-19, gerando grandes expectativas. Sem dúvida, os processos massivos de vacinação não avançaram à velocidade requerida por diversos fatores; um dos principais é a resistência de muitas pessoas a vacinar-se, alegando diferentes razões. Frente a esta situação, observou-se uma oscilação entre a realização de campanhas de publicidade a propostas de imposição forçada. Uma alternativa para ir além do meramente lírico e do coercitivo é gerar formas de motivação para que as pessoas decidam voluntariamente vacinar-se através de diversas medidas, diretas e indiretas, apelando a "Nudge" -ou a "teoria do pequeno empurrão"- a fim de propiciar a melhor proteção da saúde individual e coletiva, tema do que trata o presente artigo, a partir da revisão bibliográfica sobre a matéria e diversas experiências na luta contra o coronavírus.

Spanish adaptation of the Ambivalent Classism Inventory (ACI) / Adaptación del Inventario de Clasismo Ambivalente (ICA) para hispanohablantes

Abstract Introduction: Hostile and benevolent classism influence the derogation of poor people and groups, with negative consequences. The present study aims to adapt and validate the Ambivalent Classism Inventory (ACI) to obtain an adequate tool for expanding research on this topic among the Spanish-speaking population. Method: Toward this end, the researchers back-translated the ACI version originally developed for English speakers. Exploratory and confirmatory analyses verify the ACI's reliability and factor structure with a sample of Mexican participants. Results: The results demonstrated that the adapted scale's psychometric properties are acceptable. Its original and factor structure are similar to those of the original scale: hostile classism (12 items), protective paternalism (4 items), and complementary class differentiation (4 items). Furthermore, the study tests the convergent and divergent validity of the scale´s sub-dimensions concerning other ideological and socioeconomic variables. Conclusion: The proposed ACI adaptation should contribute to understanding attitudes toward the poor as well as their consequences among Spanish speakers.

Resumen Introducción: El clasismo hostil y benevolente contribuye a la discriminación de las personas y grupos pobres, lo que implica consecuencias negativas para estos individuos. Este artículo tiene como objetivo adaptar y validar el Inventario de Clasismo Ambivalente (ACI) para obtener una herramienta adecuada que sea útil para expandir la investigación sobre este tema entre la población hispanohablante. Método: Con este fin, se tradujo al español la versión del ACI desarrollada originalmente para angloparlantes, y esta versión en español fue a su vez traducida al inglés. Tras la aplicación de la escala en español, se llevaron a cabo análisis exploratorios y confirmatorios para verificar la confiabilidad y la estructura factorial del ACI en una muestra de participantes mexicanos. Resultados: Los resultados demostraron que las propiedades psicométricas de la escala adaptada son aceptables. Su estructura original y factorial son similares a las de la escala original: clasismo hostil (12 ítems), paternalismo protector (4 ítems) y diferenciación de clases complementarias (4 ítems). Además, el estudio confirmó la validez convergente y divergente de las subdimensiones de la escala en relación con otras variables ideológicas y socioeconómicas. Conclusión: La adaptación propuesta de ACI contribuirá a comprender las actitudes hacia los pobres y sus consecuencias entre los hispanohablantes.

Médico como arquiteto da escolha: paternalismo e respeito à autonomia / Physicians as choice architects: paternalism and respect for autonomy / El médico como arquitecto de elección: paternalismo y respeto por la autonomía

Resumo A relação médico-paciente difere significativamente das demais interações sociais. Não por acaso, cresce expressivamente o número de estudos voltados exclusivamente à referida área. O fortalecimento da concepção de autonomia passou também a abranger a figura do paciente, com notória ampliação de sua esfera de participação e de influência na tomada de decisão em tratamentos e em procedimentos clínicos, mitigando aquela concepção exacerbadamente paternalista que recaía sobre a figura do profissional médico. Porém, daí insurge grave problemática: quais são os limites dessa autonomia? Acredita-se que a solução se encontra na ideia do paternalismo libertário, tese de Richard Thaler e Cass Sunstein, em que o médico atua como arquiteto da escolha do paciente. A partir do método hipotético-dedutivo, o objetivo do presente ensaio é verificar a possibilidade de adequar o método do paternalismo libertário à prática médica, mormente em relação aos hard cases , estabelecendo o alcance e os limites da autonomia do paciente.

Abstract The doctor-patient relationship differs significantly from other social interactions, and in the last years studies on this subject have grown significantly. The concept of autonomy now also encompasses patients, with notable expansion of their sphere of participation and influence in decision-making in treatments and clinical procedures, mitigating that overly paternalistic role of the physician. But this change poses a serious question: what are the limits of this autonomy? This article believes in the solution of libertarian paternalism, an idea proposed by Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein, in which the doctor acts as a choice architect for the patient. Based on the hypothetico-deductive method, this study verifies the possibility of adapting libertarian paternalism to current medical practices, mainly in hard cases, establishing the scope and limits of patient autonomy.

Resumen La relación médico-paciente difiere significativamente de otras interacciones sociales. No es coincidencia que haya un aumento expresivo de estudios centrados exclusivamente en esta área. El fortalecimiento del concepto de autonomía ha abarcado también la figura del paciente, con una notable ampliación de su esfera de participación y influencia en las decisiones sobre tratamientos y procedimientos clínicos, mitigando la concepción extremadamente paternalista que recae en la figura del profesional médico. Sin embargo, esto plantea un problema grave: ¿dónde están los límites de esta autonomía? El artículo argumenta que la solución radica en la idea de paternalismo libertario propuesta por Richard Thaler y Cass Sunstein, según la cual el médico actuaría como el arquitecto de elección del paciente. Con base en el método hipotético-deductivo, el objetivo de este estudio fue verificar la posibilidad de adaptar la metodología del paternalismo libertario a la práctica médica, especialmente con relación a los casos difíciles ( hard cases ), para establecer el alcance y los límites de la autonomía del paciente.

Communication patterns in the doctor-patient relationship: evaluating determinants associated with low paternalism in Mexico.

BACKGROUND: Paternalism/overprotection limits communication between healthcare professionals and patients and does not promote shared therapeutic decision-making. In the global north, communication patterns have been regulated to promote autonomy, whereas in the global south, they reflect the physician's personal choices. The goal of this study was to contribute to knowledge on the communication patterns used in clinical practice in Mexico and to identify the determinants that favour a doctor-patient relationship characterized by low paternalism/autonomy. METHODS: A self-report study on communication patterns in a sample of 761 mental healthcare professionals in Central and Western Mexico was conducted. Multiple ordinal logistic regression models were used to analyse paternalism and associated factors. RESULTS: A high prevalence (68.7% [95% CI 60.0-70.5]) of paternalism was observed among mental health professionals in Mexico. The main determinants of low paternalism/autonomy were medical specialty (OR 1.67 [95% CI 1.16-2.40]) and gender, with female physicians being more likely to explicitly share diagnoses and therapeutic strategies with patients and their families (OR 1.57 [95% CI 1.11-2.22]). A pattern of highly explicit communication was strongly associated with low paternalism/autonomy (OR 12.13 [95% CI 7.71-19.05]). Finally, a modifying effect of age strata on the association between communication pattern or specialty and low paternalism/autonomy was observed. CONCLUSIONS: Among mental health professionals in Mexico, high paternalism prevailed. Gender, specialty, and a pattern of open communication were closely associated with low paternalism/autonomy. Strengthening health professionals' competencies and promoting explicit communication could contribute to the transition towards more autonomist communication in clinical practice in Mexico. The ethical implications will need to be resolved in the near future.

Autonomia do usuário na implementação de práticas integrativas complementares / User autonomy in implementing additional integrative practices

Resumo Esse estudo teve como objetivo desenvolver uma reflexão bioética acerca da autonomia dos usuários submetidos às Práticas Integrativas Complementares no contexto do Sistema Único de Saúde, à luz da concepção de Bioética da Proteção. Trata-se de revisão integrativa da literatura com recorte temporal de 2007 a 2017, cuja busca do material ocorreu no mês de abril de 2018, na Biblioteca Virtual em Saúde. Como resultado, foi identificado que a maior parte do material analisado é recente, entre 2010 e 2017, escrita por diferentes profissionais que se preocupam em estudar o tema, em periódicos de nível nacional no idioma português, sendo o interesse predominante entre farmacêuticos e enfermeiros. Foi possível perceber que, na concepção dos usuários, as Práticas Integrativas Complementares investigadas influenciam positivamente na autonomia do usuário. Embora as Práticas Integrativas Complementares sejam consideradas estratégias eficazes na promoção da saúde, surgem desafios ao integrá-las em um contexto onde a biociência domina nos aspectos epistemológicos e culturais. Recomenda-se, assim, que se ampliem as pesquisas sobre Prática Integrativa Complementar, e se invista em metodologias para a sensibilização dos atores envolvidos, visando ampliar a interface com a promoção da saúde, favorecendo a compreensão e a consolidação dessas práticas no cenário do fazer em saúde.

Abstract This study aimed to develop a bioethical reflection on the autonomy of users submitted to Complementary Integrative Practices in the context of the Unified Health System, in the light of the concept of Protection Bioethics. This is an integrative literature review with a time frame from 2007 to 2017, whose search for the material took place in April 2018, at the Virtual Health Library. As a result, it was identified that most of the material analyzed is recent, between 2010 and 2017, written by different professionals who are concerned with studying the topic, in national journals in the Portuguese language, being the predominant interest among pharmacists and nurses. It was possible to perceive that, in the users' conception, the Complementary Integrative Practices investigated positively influence the user's autonomy. Although Complementary Integrative Practices are considered effective strategies in health promotion, challenges arise when integrating them in a context where bioscience dominates in epistemological and cultural aspects. Therefore, it is recommended that research on Complementary Integrative Practice be expanded, and investment in methodologies to raise awareness among the actors involved, aiming at expanding the interface with health promotion, favoring the understanding and consolidation of these practices in the scenario of doing in health.

Resumen Este estudio tuvo como objetivo desarrollar una reflexión bioética sobre la autonomía de los usuarios sometidos a Prácticas Integrativas Complementarias en el contexto del Sistema Único de Salud, a la luz del concepto de Bioética de Protección. Esta es una revisión de literatura integradora con un marco de tiempo de 2007 a 2017, cuya búsqueda del material tuvo lugar en abril de 2018, en la Biblioteca Virtual de Salud. Como resultado, se identificó que la mayor parte del material analizado es reciente, entre 2010 y 2017, escrito por diferentes profesionales interesados en estudiar el tema, en revistas nacionales en portugués, siendo el interés predominante entre farmacéuticos y enfermeras. Fue posible percibir que, en la concepción de los usuarios, las Prácticas Integrativas Complementarias investigadas influyen positivamente en la autonomía del usuario. Aunque las Prácticas Integrativas Complementarias se consideran estrategias efectivas en la promoción de la salud, surgen desafíos al integrarlas en un contexto donde la biociencia domina en aspectos epistemológicos y culturales. Por lo tanto, se recomienda ampliar la investigación sobre Práctica Integrativa Complementaria e inversiones en metodologías para aumentar la conciencia de los actores involucrados, con el objetivo de ampliar la interfaz con la promoción de la salud, favoreciendo la comprensión y consolidación de estas prácticas en el escenario práctico. en salud

Moral structuring of children during the process of obtaining informed consent in clinical and research settings.

BACKGROUND: Informed consent is an important factor in a child's moral structure from which different types of doctor-patient relationships arise. Children's autonomy is currently under discussion in terms of their decent treatment, beyond what doctors and researchers perceive. To describe the influential practices that exist among clinicians and researchers toward children with chronic diseases during the process of obtaining informed consent. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional, qualitative study via a subjective and interpretivist approach. The study was performed by conducting semi-structured interviews of 21 clinicians and researchers. Data analysis was performed using the SPSS version 21® and Atlas Ti version 7.0® programs. RESULTS: The deliberative and paternalistic models were influential practices in the physician-patient relationship. In the deliberative model, the child is expected to have a moral awareness of their care. The paternalistic model determined that submission was a way of structuring the child because he or she is considered to be a subject of extreme care. CONCLUSIONS: The differentiated objectification [educational] process recognizes the internal and external elements of the child. Informed consent proved to be an appropriate means for strengthening moral and structuring the child.

[Open communication between mental health professionals and parents of patients with intellectual disabilities]. / Comunicación abierta entre profesionales de la salud mental y padres de pacientes con discapacidad intelectual.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the factors associated with open communication between mental health professionals and parents of patients with intellectual disabilities and other neurodevelopmental disorders. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Cross-sectional survey in 759 mental health professionals. The association between the pattern of open communication and the attributes of communication was estimated through a logistic, ordinal, multivariate model. RESULTS: The prevalence of the pattern of open communication in mental health professionals was 30.6% (95%CI 27.4-34.0). The associated factors were younger age (RM=2.42, 95% CI 1.57-3.75), specialty (RM= 1.56, 95%CI 1.09-2.23), high value to the truth (RM= 4.95, 95% CI 3.21-7.65), low paternalism (RM= 10.93, 95%CI 7.22-16.52) and courses in bioethics (RM= 1.45, 95%CI 1.01-2.09), adjusted for confusing variables. CONCLUSIONS: Mental health professionals reported low levels of open com-munication with parents of people with neurovelopmental disorders, so prioritizing the value to the truth, promoting less paternalism, and respecting the autonomy of patients, can contribute to changing these patterns of communication in clinical practice in Mexico.

OBJETIVO: Estimar los factores asociados con la comunicación abierta entre profesionales de la salud mental y padres de pacientes con discapacidad intelectual y otros trastornos del neurodesarrollo. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Encuesta transversal en 759 profesionales de la salud mental. Se estimó la asociación entre el patrón de comunicación abierto y los atributos de la comunicación a través de un modelo logísti-co, ordinal y multivariado. RESULTADOS: La prevalencia del patrón de comunicación abierta en profesionales de la salud mental fue de 30.6% (IC95% 27.4-34.0). Los factores asocia-dos fueron menor edad (RM=2.42, IC95% 1.57-3.75), espe-cialidad (RM=1.56, IC95% 1.09-2.23), alto valor a la verdad (RM=4.95, IC95% 3.21-7.65), bajo paternalismo (RM=10.93, IC95% 7.22-16.52) y cursos de bioética (RM=1.45, IC95% 1.01-2.09), ajustando por variables confusoras. CONCLUSIONES: Los profesionales de la salud mental reportaron bajos niveles de comunicación abierta con los padres de personas con trastornos del neurodesarrollo, por lo que priorizar el valor a la verdad, promover un menor paternalismo y el respeto a la autonomía de los pacientes puede contribuir a cambiar estos patrones de comunicación en la práctica clínica en México.

Comunicación abierta entre profesionales de la salud mental y padres de pacientes con discapacidad intelectual / Open communication between mental health professionals and parents of patients with intellectual disabilities

Resumen Objetivo: Estimar los factores asociados con la comunicación abierta entre profesionales de la salud mental y padres de pacientes con discapacidad intelectual y otros trastornos del neurodesarrollo. Material y métodos: Encuesta transversal en 759 profesionales de la salud mental. Se estimó la asociación entre el patrón de comunicación abierto y los atributos de la comunicación a través de un modelo logístico, ordinal y multivariado. Resultados: La prevalencia del patrón de comunicación abierta en profesionales de la salud mental fue de 30.6% (IC95% 27.4-34.0). Los factores asociados fueron menor edad (RM=2.42, IC95% 1.57-3.75), especialidad (RM=1.56, IC95% 1.09-2.23), alto valor a la verdad (RM=4.95, IC95% 3.21-7.65), bajo paternalismo (RM=10.93, IC95% 7.22-16.52) y cursos de bioética (RM=1.45, IC95% 1.01-2.09), ajustando por variables confusoras. Conclusión: Los profesionales de la salud mental reportaron bajos niveles de comunicación abierta con los padres de personas con trastornos del neurodesarrollo, por lo que priorizar el valor a la verdad, promover un menor paternalismo y el respeto a la autonomía de los pacientes puede contribuir a cambiar estos patrones de comunicación en la práctica clínica en México.

Abstract Objective: To estimate the factors associated with open communication between mental health professionals and parents of patients with intellectual disabilities and other neurodevelopmental disorders. Materials and methods: Cross-sectional survey in 759 mental health professionals. The association between the pattern of open communication and the attributes of communication was estimated through a logistic, ordinal, multivariate model. Results: The prevalence of the pattern of open communication in mental health professionals was 30.6% (95%CI 27.4-34.0). The associated factors were younger age (RM=2.42, 95% CI 1.57-3.75), specialty (RM= 1.56, 95%CI 1.09-2.23), high value to the truth (RM= 4.95, 95% CI 3.21-7.65), low paternalism (RM= 10.93, 95%CI 7.22-16.52) and courses in bioethics (RM= 1.45, 95%CI 1.01-2.09), adjusted for confusing variables. Conclusion: Mental health professionals reported low levels of open communication with parents of people with neurovelopmental disorders, so prioritizing the value to the truth, promoting less paternalism, and respecting the autonomy of patients, can contribute to changing these patterns of communication in clinical practice in Mexico.

Analysis of the influence of clinical and demographic factors on the understanding of cataract informed consent / Análisis de la influencia de factores clínicos y demográficos en la comprensión del consentimiento informado de cataratas / Análise da influência de fatores clínicos e demográficos na compreensão do consentimento informado para cirurgia de catarata

PURPOSE: To estimate the influence of clinical and demographical information in the understanding of cataract surgery informed consent, identifying less understandable areas. To assess informed consent document concept. METHODS: Multiple-choice questionnaire was designed to collect information and to evaluate the understanding of cataract surgery and informed consent. An ordinary regression model was adjusted to express the effect of clinical and demographic variables to the questionnaire score. RESULTS: The study comprised 180 patients. Sex (female, p=0.404), non-ophthalmologist source of information (p=0.397), previous surgical history (p=0.571), not having a companion (p=0.396) nor the days since the signing of informed consent form (p=0.535) had no influence in the understanding of cataract surgery informed consent. Age (r=-0.083, p<0.001) and educational level (secondary studies r=1.845, p<0.001; tertiary studies r=4.289, p<0.001) showed statistical significance with greater strength of association educational level (OR secondary studies = 6.33, OR tertiary studies = 72.86) than age had (OR = 0.92). CONCLUSION: Patient's knowledge about cataract informed consent is influenced by age and educational level. The purpose and the risks, consequences of not performing surgery and postoperative indications are the least understood topics. Informed consent is seen as a forced legal obligation.

OBJETIVOS: estimar la influencia de la información clínica y demográfica en la comprensión del consentimiento informado de la cirugía de cataratas, identificando áreas menos comprensibles. Evaluar el concepto de "documento de consentimiento informad". MÉTODOS: el cuestionario de opción múltiple se diseñó para reunir información y evaluar la comprensión de la cirugía de cataratas y el consentimiento informado. Se ajustó un modelo de regresión ordinario para expresar el efecto de las variables clínicas y demográficas en la puntuación del cuestionario. RESULTADOS: El estudio abarcó 180 pacientes. Sexo (femenino, p = 0.404); fuente de información no oftalmológica (p = 0.397); historial quirúrgico previo (p = 0.571); no tener acompañante (p = 0.396), y los días desde la firma del formulario de consentimiento informado (p = 0,535), que no tuvo influencia en la comprensión del consentimiento informado en la cirugía de cataratas. La edad (r = -0.083, p <0.001) y el nivel educativo (estudios secundarios r = 1.845, p <0.001; estudios terciarios r = 4.289, p <0.001) mostraron significación estadística con una mayor fuerza del nivel educativo de asociación (OR estudios secundarios = 6.33, OR estudios terciarios = 72.86) que la edad (OR = 0.92). CONCLUSIÓN: El conocimiento del paciente sobre el consentimiento informado en cirugía de cataratas está influenciado por la edad y el nivel educativo. Los temas menos entendidos son el propósito y los riesgos, las consecuencias de no realizar la cirugía y las indicaciones postoperatorias. El consentimiento informado se considera una obligación legal forzada.

OBJETIVO: Estimar a influência de informações clínicas e demográficas na compreensão do consentimento informado para cirurgia de catarata, identificando áreas menos compreensíveis. Avaliar o conceito do documento de consentimento informado. MÉTODOS: Um questionário de múltipla escolha foi desenvolvido para coletar informações e avaliar a compreensão sobre cirurgia de catarata e de consentimento informado. Um modelo de regressão ordinária foi ajustado para expressar o efeito das variáveis clínicas e demográficas no escore do questionário. RESULTADOS: O estudo envolveu 180 pacientes. Sexo (feminino, p=0,404), fonte de informações não oftalmológica (p=0,397), história cirúrgica prévia (p=0,571), não ter um/a companheiro/a (p=0,396) nem os dias desde a assinatura do formulário de consentimento informado (p=0,535) tiveram influência na compreensão do consentimento informado para cirurgia de catarata. Idade (r=-0,083, p<0,001) e nível educacional (estudos secundários r=1,845, p<0,001; estudos terciários r=4,289, p<0,001) mostraram significância estatística, com maior força de associação para o nível educacional (OR estudos secundários = 6,33, OR estudos terciários = 72,86) que para a idade (OR = 0,92). CONCLUSÃO: O conhecimento do paciente sobre o consentimento informado para cirurgia de catarata é influenciado pela idade e nível educacional. O objetivo e os riscos, consequências, de não fazer a cirurgia e as indicações pós-operatórias são os tópicos menos compreensíveis. O consentimento informado é visto como uma obrigação legal compulsória.

¿Tiene cabida, hoy, el "privilegio terapéutico"? / Does therapeutic privilege have a place in modern medicine?

During the last years, bioethical discussion has highlighted the role of the patients' autonomy, being informed consent its particular expression, about decisions that they should make about their own health. The Hippocratic tradition, the deontological positions of the Geneva Declaration of the World Medical Association and numerous codes of ethics in various countries, require that the physician, above all, should ensure patients' health. In this context the discussion on pros and cons for the so-called "therapeutic privilege" are discussed. The "therapeutic privilege" refers to the withholding of information by the clinician during the consent process in the belief that disclosure of this information would lead to harm or suffering of the patient. The circumstances and conditions in which this privilege can become valid are discussed. Special reference is made in order to respect multiculturalism and to the possibility of obtaining advice from health care ethics committees. The role of prudence in the doctor-patient relation must be highlighted. Disclosure of information should be subordinated and oriented to the integral well-being of the patient.

THE ETHICS OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY IN TURKEY: RESPONSIBILITY AND CONSENT TO RISK.

Work-related diseases, injuries, risks and deaths are the issues that have been recently gaining importance especially in developing countries. The ethical dimensions of occupational health and safety have remained as relatively understudied areas. Concepts such as responsibility, consent, autonomy, paternalism, choice, and certain values or justifications that are used in medical ethics and bioethics are also applicable to occupational health and safety. This article examines the ethical issues of responsibility and consent to occupational risk. It will first define the concepts of consent and risk, and then different views on responsibility and consent to risk will be discussed. The article will also examine the responsibility of the society and government regarding these concepts.

The ethics of occupational health and safety in Turkey: responsibility and consent to risk / La ética de la salud ocupacional y temas de seguridad en Turquía: responsabilidad y consentimiento al riesgo / A ética da saúde e segurança ocupacionais na Turquia: responsabilidade e consentimento para o risco

Work-related diseases, injuries, risks and deaths are the issues that have been recently gaining importance especially in developing countries. The ethical dimensions of occupational health and safety have remained as relatively understudied areas. Concepts such as responsibility, consent, autonomy, paternalism, choice, and certain values or justifications that are used in medical ethics and bioethics are also applicable to occupational health and safety. This article examines the ethical issues of responsibility and consent to occupational risk. It will first define the concepts of consent and risk, and then different views on responsibility and consent to risk will be discussed. The article will also examine the responsibility of the society and government regarding these concepts.

Enfermedades relacionadas con el trabajo, lesiones, riesgos y muertes son temas de mayor importancia, especialmente en países en desarrollo. Las dimensiones éticas de la salud ocupacional y los temas de seguridad han sido relativamente menos examinados. La responsabilidad, el consentimiento, la autonomía, el paternalismo, la elección y otros conceptos, como valores y justificaciones usados en ética médica y bioética, son también aplicables al ámbito de la salud ocupacional y seguridad. Este artículo examina los temas éticos de responsabilidad y consentimiento relativos a riesgo ocupacional. En este artículo, primero, se definen los conceptos de consentimiento y riesgo, entonces se discuten puntos de vista diferentes sobre responsabilidad y consentimiento al riesgo y finalmente se examina la responsabilidad de la sociedad y el gobierno.

Doenças relacionadas com o trabalho, lesões, riscos e mortes são temas que ganham importância, especialmente nos países em desenvolvimento. As dimensões éticas de questões de saúde e segurança no trabalho têm sido relativamente pouco examinadas. Responsabilidade, consentimento, autonomia, paternalismo, escolha e outros conceitos, valores ou justificativas usadas em ética médica e bioética são também aplicáveis ao domínio da saúde e segurança ocupacionais. Este artigo examina as questões de ética da responsabilidade e o consentimento ao risco ocupacional. Neste artigo, em primeiro lugar, os conceitos de consentimento e de risco são definidos; em seguida, diferentes pontos de vista sobre a responsabilidade e consentimento ao risco são discutidos e, finalmente, a responsabilidade da sociedade e do governo são examinados.

Falta de sentido de vida y suicidio: ¿en qué circunstancias el paternalismo médico puede estar justificado? / Falta de sentido de vida e suicídio: em que circunstâncias o paternalismo médico pode estar justificado? / Lack of sense of life and suicide: In which circumstances medical paternalism may be justified?

Objetivos. Descripción de un caso clínico abordado a través de un enfoque bioético. Materiales y métodos. Por medio de la deliberación moral, se aclararon los hechos relevantes y se identificaron los problemas morales; se seleccionó el problema ético central y se plantearon cursos de acción. Resultados y conclusiones. En este caso clínico la solución más prudente incluyó el paternalismo justificado. La práctica de la deliberación moral es indispensable, porque las decisiones frecuentemente rebasan la técnica médica y exigen la ponderación de valores morales.

Aims: Description of a clinical case addressed by using a bioethical focus. Materials and methods: Relevant facts were clarified and moral problems were identified by moral deliberation; main ethical problem was selected and courses of action were suggested. Results and conclusions: In this clinical case the most prudent solution was justified paternalism. The practice of moral deliberation is essential since decisions frequently surpass medical techniques and demand the deliberation of moral values.

Objetivos. Descrição de um caso clínico abordado através de um enfoque bioético. Materiais e métodos. Por meio da deliberação moral foram esclarecidos os fatos relevantes e se identificaram os problemas morais; se selecionou o problema ético central e se apresentou cursos de ação. Resultados e conclusões. Neste caso clínico a solução mais prudente incluiu o paternalismo justificado. A prática da deliberação moral é indispensável porque as decisões frequentemente ultrapassam a técnica médica e exigem a ponderação de valores morais.

Dialética entre liberalismo, paternalismo de Estado e biopolítica: análise conceitual, implicações bioéticas e democráticas / Dialéctica entre liberalismo, paternalismo de Estado y biopolítica. Análisis conceptual, implicaciones bioéticas y democráticas / Dialectics between liberalism, State paternalism, and biopolitics: the conceptual analysis and the democratic and bioethical implications

Na cultura política do mundo ocidental costuma-se opor liberalismo e paternalismo, partindo do pressuposto de que o primeiro termo indica uma defesa do valor da liberdade individual, constitutiva da cultura dos direitos humanos, ao passo que o segundo negaria este valor. Este trabalho defende a tese de que tais termos, em seu conjunto, possuem relação de tipo dialético, pois o primeiro ocuparia o lugar de tese e o segundo de antítese, cuja síntese seria representada pelo momento da biopolítica, a qual constituiria, por sua vez, uma nova tese, iniciando novo processo dialético em que o lugar da antítese seria representado pela bioética, sendo que ambas confluiriam para uma nova síntese, representada pelo empoderamento dos cidadãos, constitutivo das sociedades democráticas, ou que se pretendem tais...

En la cultura política del mundo occidental es costumbre oponer liberalismo y paternalismo, suponiendo que el primer término indica una defensa del valor de la libertad individual, constitutiva de la cultura de los derechos humanos, mientras que el segundo podría negar este valor. En este trabajo se defiende la tesis de que tales términos, en su conjunto, tienen un tipo de relación dialéctica, ya que el primero tendría a ocupar el lugar de una tesis y el segundo aquel de una antítesis, siendo la síntesis representada por la biopolítica, que constituiría, a su vez, una nueva tesis, empezando un nuevo proceso dialéctico, dónde el lugar de la antítesis sería representado por la bioética, los cuales confluirían para una nueva síntesis, representada por el empoderamiento de los ciudadanos, y que es un elemento constitutivo de las sociedades democráticas, o que se pretenden como tales...

The political culture of the Western world often opposes liberalism and paternalism, assuming that the first term indicates a defense of the value of individual freedom, constitutive of the human rights culture, while the second would deny this value. This paper defends the thesis that such terms, as a whole, have a dialectical relationship, because the first would take the place of a thesis and the second of an antithesis, which synthesis would be represented by the moment of biopolitics, which would in turn, constitute a new thesis, in a new dialectical process in which the place of the antithesis would be represented by bioethics, both of which would converge in a new synthesis, represented by the empowering of people, and that is constitutive of democratic societies, or that claim themselves as such...