Inducing select/reject control in a matching-to-sample procedure with observing response: Effects on stimulus equivalence.

This study investigated a three-choice matching-to-sample procedure with an observing-response requirement to induce select and reject control during baseline training and examined their effects on the formation of equivalence classes. The study involved four girls, aged 8 to 10 years, who participated in a computer-based task that alternated between conditions designed to induce select and reject control by requiring observing responses to display the stimuli. In the select-control condition, the correct stimulus was revealed first on at least 75% of the trials, increasing the likelihood of selecting the correct stimulus without seeing the incorrect ones. In contrast, in the reject-control condition, the correct stimulus was revealed third on at least 75% of the trials, forcing the display of both incorrect stimuli. This procedure successfully generated both select and reject control, which increased progressively with the accuracy during baseline training trials. Select control was more prominent than reject control, but both led to the formation of equivalence classes. This finding suggests that reject control does not hinder control by the correct stimulus.

Merging meaningful classes and abstract equivalence classes by exclusion.

The current experiment assessed whether relating abstract stimuli with familiar pictures by exclusion would produce the formation of a meaningful equivalence class. Ten participants learned conditional discrimination relations with abstract stimuli and established equivalence classes (ABC classes). They then learned DA (D1A1, D2A2, and D3A3) conditional discriminations with written words as D stimuli; two words (D1 and D2) were meaningful stimuli in the participants verbal community ("Dentist" and "Baker"), whereas the third (D3) was a pseudoword ("Tabilu"). In testing trials, participants evidenced derived relations between pictures related preexperimentally to D1 and D2 with the experimental equivalence classes related to D1 and D2. For some participants, the decontextualized stimuli were a set of boat pictures (Condition 1), whereas for others they were a set of miscellaneous pictures (Condition 2). Participants in both conditions successfully matched decontextualized pictures (unrelated to dentist and baker contexts) to all abstract stimuli in the class related to D3 (exclusion responding). In Condition 1 the meaning reported to the word Tabilu was similar across participants, but in Condition 2 participants showed more variations to answer to the meaning of Tabilu. These results suggest that exclusion learning can occur under different stimulus control topographies.

Evidence of precurrent responses expanding equivalence classes in a delayed matching-to-sample task.

Delayed matching to sample (DMTS) increases the probability of equivalence class formation. Precurrent responses can mediate the retention interval in DMTS trials and control the selection of comparisons. In human participants, precurrent responses usually consist of naming the experimental stimuli based on their similarities to meaningful stimuli with preexperimental history. We tested whether precurrents expand classes by serving as nodes between experimental and meaningful stimuli. A DMTS (2 s) was used throughout the entire experiment. Eleven undergraduates learned A1B1 and A2B2 relations and then were submitted to ArC trials that required them to answer math problems presented during the DMTS interval: when the sample was A1, the problems resulted in 12 and C1 was correct; when the sample was A2, they resulted in 9 and C2 was correct. Response-as-node tests assessed whether participants would relate B1 and C1 to the printed number 12 and B2 and C2 to the printed number 9. Ten participants responded accordingly to this pattern, showing that the responses to the problems expanded the classes. Parity tests using the words "even" and "odd" further confirmed this hypothesis. These results contribute to understanding why DMTS enhances equivalence performances. Implications of using this procedure in stimulus-equivalence studies are discussed.

Transfer of functions based on equivalence class formation using musical stimuli.

Empirical evidence has supported that musical excerpts written in major and minor modes are responsible for evoking happiness and sadness, respectively. In this study, we evaluated whether the emotional content evoked by musical stimuli would transfer to abstract figures when they became members of the same equivalence class. Participants assigned to the experimental group were submitted to a training procedure to form equivalence classes comprising musical excerpts (A) and meaningless abstract figures (B, C, and D). Afterward, transfer of function was evaluated using a semantic differential. Participants in the control group showed positive semantic differential scores for major mode musical excerpts, negative scores for minor mode musical excerpts, and neutral scores for the B, C, and D stimuli. Participants in the experimental groups showed positive semantic differential scores for visual stimuli equivalent to the major modes and negative semantic differential scores for visual stimuli equivalent to the minor modes. These results indicate transfer of function of emotional content present in musical stimuli through equivalence class formation. These findings could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the effects of using emotional stimuli in equivalence class formation experiments and in transfer of function itself.

Negritude no Brasil: publicações em análise do comportamento / Blackness in Brazil: publications in behavior analysis / Negritud en Brasil: publicaciones en análisis del comportamiento

Dados quantitativos revelam diferenças entre negros e não negros em relação à violência no Brasil, e esse fato abre espaço para discutir o racismo. Autores apontam que há necessidade de levar em consideração aspectos históricos, como o escravismo, para compreender a situação atual do fenômeno. Este estudo teve como objetivo discutir a contribuição da Análise do Comportamento, por meio de seus estudos, para a construção de comportamentos não racistas. Realizou-se busca nos Periódicos Capes, e selecionaram-se estudos produzidos nos últimos 20 anos (2000-2020) que contivessem as palavras de busca racism, racial e Behavior Analysis. Os estudos discutiam sobre ferramentas para mensuração de viés racial implícito e também formas de intervenção. Conclui-se que a Análise do Comportamento, embora seja uma ciência eficaz para mudança de comportamento, ainda precisa aumentar sua produção sobre o racismo.

Quantitative data has been revealing differences between blacks and non-blacks regarding violence in Brazil. This fact opens space to discuss racism. Authors have been pointing out that there is a need to consider historical aspects, such as slavery, to understand the current stage of the phenomenon. This study aimed to discuss the contribution of Behavior Analysis, through its studies, to the construction of non-racist behaviors. Having the last 20 years as a time frame (2000-2020), a search and a selection of studies that contained the keywords Racism, Racial, and Behavior Analysis were carried out in the CAPES Journals database, from Brazil. The found studies discussed tools for measuring implicit racial bias as well as ways of intervention. It was concluded that Behavior Analysis, although an effective science for behavior change, still needs to increase its production on racism.

Datos cuantitativos han revelado diferencias entre negros y no negros con respecto a la violencia en Brasil. Esta realidad abre espacio para discutir el racismo. Autores vienen señalando que es necesario considerar aspectos históricos, como la esclavitud, para comprender el escenario actual del fenómeno. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo discutir la contribución del Análisis del Comportamiento, a través de sus pesquisas, a la construcción de conductas no racistas. Se realizaron una búsqueda y selección de estudios que contenían las palabras clave racism, racial y Behavior Analysis, en la base de datos Periódicos Capes, de Brasil, escritos en los últimos 20 años (2000-2020). Los estudios encontrados discutieron herramientas para medir el sesgo racial implícito, así como formas de intervención. Se llegó a la conclusión de que el Análisis del Comportamiento, aunque es una ciencia eficaz para el cambio de conductas, todavía necesita aumentar su producción sobre el racismo.

Alterando viés racial implícito em adultos pretos e brancos: uma avaliação de procedimento de equivalência de estímulos / Changing implicit racial bias in black and white adults: an assessment of stimulus equivalence procedure / Cambiar el Sesgo racial implícito en adultos negros y blancos: una evaluación del procedimiento de equivalencia de estímulos

Enquanto ciência, a Análise do Comportamento tem tecnologia para estudar práticas culturais relacionadas a questões raciais. O objetivo deste estudo foi aplicar uma dessas tecnologias e avaliar os efeitos produzidos por um procedimento de redução de viés racial negativo em relação a pessoas pretas. Foram selecionados 17 participantes, pretos e brancos, que preencheram um questionário de autodeclaração e foram avaliados pelo Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP) para definição de linha de base. Por meio de um procedimento de matching-to-sample (MTS), foram treinadas três rela-ções entre estímulos: (a) polegares/figuras abstratas; (b) figuras abstratas/pessoas pretas e figuras abstratas; e (c) relações anteriores simultâneas. Ao término de cada treino, foram realizados testes de simetria, transitividade e equivalência. Utilizou-se novamente o IRAP, para verificar mudanças após o treino. Os resultados indicaram que as respostas dos participantes na linha de base não mostraram viés negativo para pessoas pretas mas, após o treino, houve mudança significativa para participantes brancos. Recomenda-se que pesquisas futuras testem as características do experimentador e outras formas de detecção de viés racial implícito. (AU)

As a science, behavior analysis has technology to study cultural practices related to racial issues. The purpose of this study was to assess the effects produced by a procedure aimed to reduce negative racial bias towards black people. Seventeen black and white participants were selected after fulfilling a self-declaration questionnaire and being assessed by Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP), in order to set a baseline. Then, three relations were trained using matching-to-sample (MTS): (a) thumbs/abstract figures; (b) abstract figures/ black people and abstract figures; and (c) simultaneous prior relations. Symmetry, transitivity and equivalence tests were performed at the end of each training, and IRAP was used again to assess changes after the procedure. Results indicated that participants were not negatively biased towards black people and, after the procedure, only white participants showed significant change. We recommended future studies to test the effects of the researcher's characteristics as well as other ways to detect implicit racial bias. (AU)

Como ciencia, el análisis del comportamiento tiene tecnología para estudiar prácticas culturales relacionadas con cuestiones raciales. El propósito de este estudio fue evaluar los efectos producidos por un procedimiento destinado a reducir el sesgo racial negativo con relación a personas negras. Diecisiete participantes blancos y negros fueron seleccionados después de completar un cuestionario de autodeclaración y de ser evaluados por Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP), con el fin de establecer una línea de base. Despues, se entrenaron tres relaciones utilizando matching-to-sample (MTS): (a) pulgares/figuras abstractas; (b) figuras abstractas /personas negras y figuras abstractas; y (c) relaciones previas simultáneas. Las pruebas de sime-tría, transitividad y equivalencia fueran realizadas al final de cada entrena-miento, y el IRAP fue nuevamente usado para evaluar los cambios después del procedimiento. Los resultados indicaron que los participantes no tenían sesgo negativo con relación a personas negras y, después del procedimiento, solo los participantes blancos mostraron un cambio significativo. Recomendamos futuros estudios para evaluar los efectos de las características del investigador, así como otras formas de detectar el sesgo racial implícito. (AU)

Ensino de leitura e escrita para alunos com deficiência intelectual baseado no Paradigma de Equivalência de Estímulos / Teaching reading and writing to students with intellectual disabilities based on stimulus equivalence instruction / Enseñar a leer y escribir a estudiantes con discapacidad intelectual basado en el Paradigma de Equivalencia de Estímulos

A formação de classes de estímulos equivalentes tem sido considerada um modelo para o estabelecimento de relações simbólicas, ou do significado, contribuindo para o ensino de leitura e escrita. O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar os efeitos de um módulo de ensino de um programa informatizado de leitura e escrita em crianças com deficiência intelectual matriculadas em uma escola regular. Participaram três alunos com idades entre 8 e 10 anos. O programa de ensino era aplicado na própria escola, duas a três vezes por semana, individualmente, com sessões de aproximadamente 35 minutos. Foi empregado uma avaliação geral de leitura e escrita antes e após o programa. Os resultados mostraram que quanto melhor o repertório de entrada, mais rapidamente os participantes avançaram no módulo e melhoraram seus repertórios de leitura e escrita. A realização dessa intervenção nas séries iniciais pode contribuir na aprendizagem de repertórios básicos de leitura e escrita.

The formation of stimulus equivalence classes has been considered a productive model of symbolic relations ­ or meaning ­ for teaching reading and writing. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of one module of a computerized reading and writing program for children with intellectual disabilities enrolled in a regular school. Three students aged between 8 and 10 participated in the study. The program was applied individually to each participant in the school premises across two to three weekly sessions of approximately 35 minutes each. General assessment was applied as a pre and post-test. The results showed that the better the participants' existing repertoires, the faster they advanced in the procedure and improved their reading and writing skills. Conducting this intervention in early school years can contribute to the process of leaning basic reading and writing

La formación de clases de estímulo equivalentes se ha considerado un modelo para el establecimiento de relaciones simbólicas, contribuyendo a la enseñanza de la lectura y escritura. El estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar los efectos de un módulo didáctico de un programa computarizado de lectura y escritura en niños con discapacidad intelectual matriculados en una escuela regular. Participaron tres estu diantes de entre 8 y 10 años. El programa de enseñanza se aplicó en la escuela, de dos a tres veces por semana, de manera individual, con sesiones de aproximadamente 35 minutos. Se utilizó una evaluación general de lectura y escritura antes y después del programa. Los resultados mostraron que cuanto mejor era el repertorio de entrada, más rápido avanzaban los participantes en el módulo y mejoraban su repertorio. La realización de esta intervención en los grados iniciales puede contribuir al aprendizaje de los repertorios básicos de lectura y escritura.

Revisiting the use of two choices in the matching-to-sample procedure.

The use of two choices in the matching-to-sample (MTS) procedure has been discouraged in the literature because it may lead to "reject control," resulting in failures to establish equivalence classes. In the present study, reject control was prevented during training with the two-choice MTS procedure by presenting the correct comparison with one of five possible incorrect comparisons across trials. This procedure was compared to a six-choice MTS procedure, in which these same six comparison stimuli were presented simultaneously across trials. In Experiment 1, conditional discrimination training and emergent relations testing maintained the same number of comparison choices, two or six. Experiment 2 assessed whether training with two or six choices would result in successful tests under a different configuration from the one with which training occurred (i.e., six or two choices, respectively). In Experiment 3, the conditions were the same as in Experiment 2, but minimal instructions were given to the participants. The results showed the establishment of equivalence classes in all test conditions, thus demonstrating success of the different training conditions. The two-choice MTS procedure appears to be at least as effective as the six-choice procedure for training conditional relations and establishing equivalence classes.

Merger and expansion of equivalence classes via meaningful stimuli.

The present experiments evaluated the effect of meaningful stimuli on the inclusion of a set of extra-experimental meaningful pictures into equivalence classes using within- and between-subjects designs. There were 35 adult participants in total (NEXP1 = 22; NEXP2 = 13). In both experiments, participants were first trained on six baseline relations with abstract stimuli (A, B, and C) and assessed on the emergence of three 3-member equivalence classes. Next, they were trained on DA relations and assessed on the inclusion of the D stimuli and a set of meaningful pictures in the equivalence classes. In Experiment 1, D1 and D2 were meaningful written words and D3 was a written pseudoword. In Experiment 2, for 2 groups, D1, D2, and D3 were meaningful words; for another group, D1, D2, and D3 were pseudowords. In both experiments, participants formed the ABC classes and included the D stimuli in the classes. When D was a meaningful word, participants also included a set of pictures potentially related to the word in the ABC class established experimentally. The results have implications for the definition of meaningfulness and contribute to discussions on the impact of test arrangements on emergent responding.

Equivalência de estímulos e ensino de leitura características dos participantes de estudos empíricos brasileiros de 2008 a 2017 / Stimulus equivalence and reading teaching: characteristics of the participants of Brazilian empirical studies from 2008 to 2017 / Equivalencia de estímulos y enseñanza de lectura: características de los participantes de estudios empíricos brasileños de 2008 a 2017

O presente artigo tem por objetivo descrever as características dos participantes de estudos empíricos que tratam da equivalência de estímulos e ensino de leitura, entre os anos de 2008 a 2017. Foram analisados artigos completos localizados nas bases de dados Periódicos CAPES e PEPSIC, por meio de busca combinada de descritores de equivalência de estímulos e leitura, selecionados a partir de estudos anteriores. Localizaram-se nas bases de dados dezenove artigos que compuseram o estudo. Observou-se que a escola é o local em que mais ocorreram estudos, realizados em sua maioria com crianças de desenvolvimento típico, não leitoras, com faixa etária predominante de seis a sete anos. Sobre o nível de escolaridade dos participantes pode-se identificar que a maioria se encontrava no ensino fundamental, com destaque aos 2° e 3° anos; além disso, foi identificado um estudo com alunos do Ensino Médio. Chama-se atenção à multiplicidade de característica dos participantes (deficiência auditiva, física, intelectual), característica esta vista como positiva e necessária de acordo com os pesquisadores. Sugere-se para estudos futuros ampliação da busca em outros bancos de dados nacionais e internacionais, além da descrição dos procedimentos adotados e resultados obtidos nos diferentes públicos. (AU)

This paper describes the characteristics of the participants of empirical studies dealing with the stimulus equivalence and reading teaching between the years 2008 and 2017. Scientific papers from CAPES and PEPSIC periodical database were analyzed through a combined search of stimulus equivalence and reading descriptors, selected from previous studies. Nineteen articles that composed the study in the databases. It was observed that the school is the place where most studies took place, mostly with children of typical development, non-readers, ranging from six to seven years. Regarding the educational level of the participants, the majority was in elementary school, mainly on the 2nd and 3rd years; and also a high school. It is important to highlight the multiplicity of the participants (hearing and physical impairment and intellectual disability), which is a trend understood as positive and necessary to the researchers. It is suggested, for future studies, to expand the search to national and international databases, besides the description of the adopted procedures and results obtained with different subjects. (AU)

El presente artículo tiene por objetivo describir las características de los participantes de estudios empíricos que tratan de la equivalencia de estímulos y enseñanza de lectura entre los años 2008 y 2017. Se analizaron artículos completos, de las bases de datos "Periódicos CAPES" y "PEPSIC", por medio de la búsqueda combinada de descriptores de equivalencia de estímulos y lectura, seleccionados a partir de estudios anteriores. Se localizaron, en las bases de datos, diecinueve artículos que compusieron el estudio. Se observó que la escuela es el lugar en que más ocurrieron estudios, realizados en su mayoría con niños de desarrollo típico, no lectores, con rango de edad predominante entre los seis y siete años. Sobre el nivel de escolaridad de los participantes, se puede identificar que la mayoría se encontraba en la enseñanza fundamental, con destaque a los 2° y 3° años; además, se identifico un estudio con alumnos de la enseñanza media. Se destaca la multiplicidad de característica de los participantes (discapacidad auditiva, física, intelectual), que es una tendencia comprendida como positiva y necesaria a los ojos de los investigadores. Se sugiere, para estudios futuros, ampliación de la búsqueda en otros bancos de datos nacionales e internacionales, además de la descripción de los procedimientos adoptados y resultados obtenidos en los diferentes públicos. (AU)

Emergent categorization in the recognition of black and white paintings through conditional discrimination.

BACKGROUND: The emergent categorization involving paintings by renowned painters and their corresponding names was demonstrated by previous studies. However, the results of these studies suggest that the colors of the pictures may have played a preponderant role, obscuring other aspects of the stimuli that could be more directly related to the style of each painter. To verify this possibility, the present study used the same methodology of Ferreira et al. to investigate the establishment of emergent conditional relations between categories composed of black and white paintings and the names of their authors. METHOD: The procedure consisted of the training of relations between each of the ten paintings and an abstract picture, for each of the three painters Botticelli, Monet, and Picasso. Relations between each of the three abstract figures and the printed name of one of the painters were verified in sequence. Finally, tests of relations between five trained and five untrained paintings of each artist and the printed names were conducted. RESULTS: The participants' performance suggests that the outcome was properly controlled by aspects pertinent to the paintings that belonged to each painter's category. CONCLUSIONS: The results reinforced the data obtained previously with colored pictures, suggesting that the process of emergent categorization involving artificial categories of paintings is robust. It also indicates possibilities for future investigations, for example, using stimuli of other artistic productions, such as sculpture and music.

Treinar a correspondência entre diferentes formas de apresentar problemas melhora o desempenho matemático / Entrenar la correspondencia entre diferentes formas de presentar problemas mejora el rendimiento matemático / Training the Correspondence Between Different Ways of Presenting Problems Improves Mathematical Performance

Avaliações nacionais e internacionais demonstram que estudantes brasileiros do ensino fundamental têm apre-sentado dificuldades no aprendizado do comportamento de resolver problemas aritméticos. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar, a partir de um delineamento de linha de base múltipla (LBM) entre participantes, o efeito da formação de classes de equivalência entre diferentes formas de apresentação de problemas envolvendo di-ferentes posições da incógnita e estruturas semânticas dos problemas escritos sobre o desempenho na resolução de problemas de adição e subtração. Participaram seis estudantes entre o quarto e o quinto ano do ensino fundamental de uma escola pública, sendo que cinco finalizaram o estudo. Todos apresentaram comportamen-tos de leitura e escrita suficientes para a participação na pesquisa, dificuldades na resolução de problemas aditivos e nenhum indício de ansiedade matemática ou problemas significativos em comportamentos de estudo nesta disciplina. P1, P2 e P3 foram expostos ao treino de discriminações condicionais a problemas de adição, enquanto P4 e P5 a problemas de subtração. Os testes de desempenho, que compuseram pré-testes e pós-tes-tes, envolviam problemas de adição e subtração. Após a formação das classes de equivalência, verificou-se que P1, P2 e P3 apresentaram ganhos médios de desem-penho de 22,34% (DP = 14.62), e P4 e P5 de 19,84% (DP = 11.22). Esses resultados sugerem a eficácia do procedimento. Recomenda-se que estudos futuros usem o delineamento de LBM com sondas para reduzir repetições dos testes, elaborem estratégias para ampliar engajamento dos participantes e investiguem como adaptar este procedimento para contextos aplicados

Las evaluaciones nacionales e internacionales demuestran que estudiantes brasileños de la escuela primaria tienen dificultades para aprender el comportamiento de resolución de problemas aritméticos. El objetivo de este estudio fue investigar, a partir de un diseño de línea base múltiple (LBM) entre los participantes, el efecto de la formación de clases de equivalencia entre diferentes formas de presentación de problemas involucrando diferentes posiciones del elemento desconocido y estructuras semánticas de problemas escritos sobre el desempeño en la resolución de problemas de suma y resta. Participaron seis estudiantes entre cuarto y quinto año de primaria de una escuela pública, y cinco completaron el estudio. Todos mostraron habilidades suficientes de lectura y escritura para participar de la investigación, dificultades para resolver problemas aditivos y ninguna evidencia de ansiedad matemática o problemas significativos de estudio en esta disciplina. P1, P2 y P3 fueron expuestos al entrenamiento de discriminación condicional a problemas de suma, mientras que P4 y P5, a problemas de resta. Las pruebas de rendimiento, que incluían pretests y postests, consistieron en problemas de suma y resta. Después de la formación de clases de equivalencia, P1, P2 y P3 presentaron ganancias promedio de desempeño de 22.34% (DE = 14.62), y P4 y P5 de 19.84% (DE = 11.22). Estos resultados sugieren la efectividad del procedimiento. Se recomienda que estudios futuros utilicen el diseño de LBM con sondeo para reducir las repeticiones de pruebas, diseñar estrategias para aumentar el interés de los participantes e investigar cómo adaptar este procedimiento a los contextos aplicados

National and international assessments demonstrate that Brazilian elementary school students have difficulties learning the behavior of solving arithmetic problems. This study aimed to investigate, using a multiple-baseline design (MBL) for participants, the effect of the formation of equivalence classes between different forms of pro- blem presentation involving different positions of the unknown element and different semantic structures of the written problems on the performance in solving addi-tion and subtraction problems. Six students in the fourth or fifth year of a public elementary school participated, and five completed the study. They all showed sufficient reading and writing behavior for participating in the re-search, difficulties in solving additive problems, and no evidence of math anxiety or significant problems in study behaviors in this discipline. P1, P2, and P3 were exposed to the conditional discrimination training to addition problems, while P4 and P5 to subtraction problems. The performance tests, which were composed of pre-tests and post-tests, involved problems of addition and subtraction. After the formation of equivalence classes, we found that P1, P2, and P3 presented average performance gains of 22.34% (SD = 14.62), and P4 and P5 of 19.84% (SD = 11.22). These results suggest the effectiveness of the pro-cedure. We recommend that future studies use the MBL design with probes to reduce test repetitions, devise strategies to increase participant engagement, and inves-tigate how to adapt this procedure to applied contexts

Auditory sentence comprehension in children with cochlear implants after simple visual discrimination training with specific auditory-visual consequences.

The present study evaluated the effects of simple discrimination training with specific consequences on auditory comprehension in children with cochlear implants (CIs). Demonstration of auditory comprehension was based on derived conditional relations and the formation of equivalence relations. Participants learned two sets of three simple visual discriminations in which the positive stimulus (S+) was a written pseudo-sentence (C1, C2, or C3) or a compound abstract picture (D1, D2, or D3), displayed in the correct orientation. Each trial presented the S+ simultaneously with two S- which were the same sentence or picture as the positive stimulus but were displayed in either an upside-down or an inverse orientation. Correct responses were followed by specific consequences with two components presented simultaneously: a dictated pseudo-sentence (A) and a representative picture (B). Probes of arbitrary matching to sample assessed derived auditory-visual (AB, AC, and AD) and visual-visual (BC, CB, BD, DB, CD, and DC) conditional relations. All three participants learned the simple discriminations; two of them showed derived conditional relations, demonstrating the formation of three ABCD classes. The present study replicated and extended previous results on sentence learning in children with CIs, suggesting the simple discrimination training with specific consequences as an efficient procedure to generate auditory-visual and symbolic relations in this population.

Equivalence relations and the contextual control of multiple derived stimulus functions.

Contextual control is a key aspect in equivalence research to support the claim that stimuli may have multiple functions or symbols may have multiple meanings. The present study investigated the contextual control of multiple derived stimulus functions in two experiments. In Experiment 1, equivalence classes were formed and one stimulus set from each class was used to establish two different functions: one via positive reinforcement (key-pressing) and another via negative reinforcement (button clicking), both under contextual control of two different background colors. Later, other stimuli from the equivalence class were presented on those background colors and contextual control of multiple derived stimulus functions was assessed. Experiment 2 added a third background in which no programmed response was reinforced, that is, responses were extinguished. Transfer-of-function tests revealed contextual control of three different functions, including derived extinction. Implications for equivalence relations as a behavior-analytical model of symbolic functioning are discussed.

Emergent categorization in the recognition of black and white paintings through conditional discrimination

Abstract Background: The emergent categorization involving paintings by renowned painters and their corresponding names was demonstrated by previous studies. However, the results of these studies suggest that the colors of the pictures may have played a preponderant role, obscuring other aspects of the stimuli that could be more directly related to the style of each painter. To verify this possibility, the present study used the same methodology of Ferreira et al. to investigate the establishment of emergent conditional relations between categories composed of black and white paintings and the names of their authors. Method: The procedure consisted of the training of relations between each of the ten paintings and an abstract picture, for each of the three painters Botticelli, Monet, and Picasso. Relations between each of the three abstract figures and the printed name of one of the painters were verified in sequence. Finally, tests of relations between five trained and five untrained paintings of each artist and the printed names were conducted. Results: The participants' performance suggests that the outcome was properly controlled by aspects pertinent to the paintings that belonged to each painter's category. Conclusions: The results reinforced the data obtained previously with colored pictures, suggesting that the process of emergent categorization involving artificial categories of paintings is robust. It also indicates possibilities for future investigations, for example, using stimuli of other artistic productions, such as sculpture and music.

Ensino de Relações Numéricas Por Meio da Equivalência de Estímulos para Crianças com Transtorno do Espectro do Autismo / Teaching Number Relationships Through Stimulus Equivalence to Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

RESUMO: Este estudo teve como objetivos avaliar os efeitos do ensino das relações entre número ditado, número arábico e quantidade, utilizando um procedimento informatizado de emparelhamento com o modelo (matching-to-sample - MTS), baseado no paradigma de equivalência de estímulos, e avaliar a generalização por meio do emprego de materiais manipuláveis com alunos com Transtorno do Espectro do Autismo (TEA). Participaram do estudo cinco alunos com TEA, com idade entre 4 e 10 anos. Foram utilizados um delineamento de pré- e pós-teste para avaliar a generalização e um delineamento de múltiplas sondagens entre grupos de estímulos. O procedimento contou com a etapa de ensino de relações entre numeral ditado e numeral arábico (AB) e entre numeral ditado e quantidade representada por cartão de círculos (AC), seguido dos testes de transitividade (relação entre numeral arábico e quantidade BC e entre quantidade e numeral arábico CB) para cada um dos três grupos de estímulos. Antes e após o ensino e teste de cada grupo de estímulos, foram avaliadas as relações AB, AC, BC e CB, empregando estímulos dos três grupos. Os resultados mostraram que os cinco participantes aprenderam as relações ensinadas AB e AC e formaram classes de equivalência, apresentando a emergência das relações BC e CB. No teste de generalização (AD e BD), quatro participantes apresentaram percentagem acima de 75% de acertos nas relações número impresso-quantidade e número ditado-quantidade. Os dados replicaram e ampliaram os resultados do paradigma de equivalência de estímulos como um recurso para o ensino de relações entre número ditado, numeral arábico e quantidade com crianças com TEA.

ABSTRACT: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of teaching the relationships between dictated number, Arabic number and quantity, employing the matching to sample procedure (MST), based on stimulus equivalence paradigm, and to evaluate the generalization through the use of manipulable materials with students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Five students with ASD participated in this study, from 4 to 10 years old. A pre- and post-test design was used to evaluate the generalization, as well as multiple probes across groups of stimuli design. The procedure included the teaching of the relationships between dictated numbers and Arabic numbers (AB) and between dictated numbers and quantity represented by circles (AC), followed by transitivity tests (Arabic numbers and quantity relation - BC; and quantity and Arabic numbers relation - CB) for each of the three stimuli groups. Before and after teaching and testing each stimuli group, the AB, AC, BC and CB relations were evaluated using stimuli from the three groups. The results showed that the five participants learned the AB and AC relationships taught and formed equivalence classes, presenting the emergence of BC and CB relationships. In the generalization test (AD and BD), four participants had a percentage above 75% of correct answers in the number-printed-quantity and number-dictated-quantity relationships. The data replicated and expanded the results of the stimulus equivalence paradigm as a resource for teaching relationships between dictated numbers, Arabic numbers and quantity with children with ASD.

Effect of observing response requirements to sample and comparison stimuli on the establishment of reject control (sample/S- relations).

The establishment of sample/S- relations (or reject control) during conditional discrimination training (AB, BC) affects transitivity (AC), equivalence (CA) and reflexivity (AA, BB, CC) test outcomes. The present study parametrically evaluated the effects of different observing patterns to comparison stimuli on the establishment of reject control during baseline conditional relation training. A matching-to-sample with observing requirements (MTS-OR) procedure was implemented during AB and BC conditional discrimination training. During training, the participants were required to observe the sample and incorrect comparison on every trial before responding. In addition, the participants were divided into three groups that differed regarding the percentage of training trials on which they were prevented from observing the correct comparison stimuli: 25%, 50%, and 75%. Once the mastery criteria were achieved during training, transitivity (AC), symmetry (BA, CB), equivalence (CA), and reflexivity (AA, BB, CC) tests were conducted with all comparison stimuli visible from the beginning. The results suggest that the number of errors during transitivity, equivalence, and reflexivity tests progressively increased as participants were prevented from observing the correct comparison on a greater number of trials during training. Symmetry test results, however, were not affected by the experimental manipulation. Moreover, the number of participants showing reject-control patterns during tests slightly increased and the number of participants showing select-control patterns decreased as a function of the number of trials on which the participants were prevented from observing the correct comparison. Thus, we suggest that observing patterns during training is a relevant variable that affects equivalence test outcomes.

Efeito da Formação de Classes de Estímulos Equivalentes e de Procedimentos de Facilitação na Emergência de Analogia / Effect of Equivalent Stimulus Class Formation and Facilitation Procedures on the Emergence of Analogy

Resumo Buscou-se verificar os efeitos da formação de classes de estímulos equivalentes e de dois procedimentos de facilitação na emergência de respostas de analogia, comparando os resultados obtidos nos testes de analogia de acordo com o procedimento de facilitação e com o fornecimento de instrução. Participaram 30 universitários. Foram ensinadas as relações AB e AC entre figuras abstratas e testadas as relações de simetria, transitividade e analogia. Os participantes que não apresentaram essas relações foram expostos aos procedimentos de facilitação. Doze participantes responderam por analogia antes do procedimento de facilitação, cinco de oito (62%), após Facilitação 1 e três de dez (33%), após Facilitação 2. Dos sete participantes expostos à instrução, seis responderam por analogia. A formação das classes não foi suficiente para a emergência das respostas de analogia e alguns participantes podem ter respondido ao Teste de Analogia sob controle de apenas alguns aspectos dos pares de estímulos.

Abstract The goals were to verify the effects of the formation of equivalent stimulus classes and two facilitation procedures on the emergence of analogy responses and to compare the results obtained in the analogy tests according to the facilitation procedure and the provision of instruction. Participants were 30 undergraduate students. AB and AC relations were taught with abstract pictures, then symmetry, transitivity, and analogy relations were tested. Participants who did not show these relations were exposed to the facilitation procedures. Twelve participants responded by analogy before the facilitation procedure, five of eight (62%) after Facilitation 1 and three of ten (33%) after Facilitation 2. Of the seven participants exposed to the instruction, six responded by analogy. Class formation was not enough for the emergence of analogy responses, and some participants might have responded to the Analogy Test under the control of only some aspects of the stimulus pairs.

Efeitos dos Controles por Seleção e por Rejeição sobre os Movimentos do Olhos / Effects of Select and Reject Controls on Eye Movements

Resumo O presente estudo avaliou o efeito dos controles por seleção e por rejeição sobre a observação de S+ e S- em treinos de emparelhamento com o modelo. Quatro adultos foram expostos a treinos de discriminação condicional e testes de equivalência. Na condição de Linha de Base (LB), nenhuma relação de controle modelo/comparação específica foi favorecida; nas condições de Controle por Rejeição e Controle por Seleção, as relações modelo/S- e modelo/S+ foram favorecidas, respectivamente. Na condição LB, foi verificada uma maior observação do S+ em comparação ao S-. O estabelecimento do controle por rejeição tendeu a ser acompanhado por uma maior observação do S- e por escolhas baseadas na observação exclusiva do S-; no caso do controle por seleção, padrões similares foram verificados, porém para o S+. Foi concluído que o estabelecimento dos controles por seleção e por rejeição são acompanhados de mudanças na observação dos estímulos de comparação.

Abstract The present study investigated the effects of select and reject controls upon S+ and S- observations during a matching-to-sample training. Four adults were exposed to discriminative trainings and equivalence tests. In Baseline (BL), no specific sample-comparison control was biased; in the Reject Control and Select Control conditions, sample/S+ and sample/S- relations were biased, respectively. In BL, participants observed more the S+ than the S-. The establishment of reject control tended to be followed by an increase in the observation of the S- and by choices based on the exclusive observation of the S-; in the case of select control, similar patterns were found, however, for the S+. Thus, the establishment of select and reject controls are followed by changes in the observation of comparison stimuli.

Emotional Faces in Symbolic Relations: A Happiness Superiority Effect Involving the Equivalence Paradigm.

The stimulus equivalence paradigm presented operational criteria to identify symbolic functions in observable behaviors. When humans match dissimilar stimuli (e.g., words to pictures), equivalence relations between those stimuli are likely to be demonstrated through behavioral tests derived from the logical properties of reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity. If these properties are confirmed, one can say that those stimuli are members of an equivalence class in which each member is substitutable for the others. A number of studies, which have established equivalence classes comprised of arbitrary stimuli and pictures of faces expressing emotions, have found that valences of the faces affect the relatedness of equivalent stimuli. Importantly, several studies reported stronger relational strength in equivalence classes containing happy faces than in equivalence classes containing angry faces. The processes that may account for this higher degree of relatability of happy faces are not yet known. The current study investigated the dynamics of the symbolic relational responding involving facial expressions of different emotions by means of the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure (IRAP). Participants were 186 undergraduate students who were taught to establish two equivalence classes, each comprising pictures of faces expressing either happiness (for one class) or a negative emotion (for another class), and meaningless words. The IRAP effect was taken as an index for the relational strength established between equivalent stimuli in the different equivalence classes. The dynamics of arbitrary relational responding in the course of the four IRAP trial types revealed that the participants exhibited a stronger IRAP effect in trials involving the happy faces and a weaker IRAP effect in trials involving the negative faces. These findings indicate that the happy faces had higher impact on the symbolic relational responding than the negative faces. The potential role played by the orienting function of happy vs. negative faces is discussed. By considering other studies that also reported a happiness superiority effect in other contexts, we present converging evidence for the prioritization of positive affect in emotional, categorical, and symbolic processing.