Elevated levels of damage-associated molecular patterns HMGB1 and S100A8/A9 coupled with toll-like receptor-triggered monocyte activation are associated with inflammation in patients with myelofibrosis.

Inflammation plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of primary and post-essential thrombocythemia or post-polycythemia vera myelofibrosis (MF) in close cooperation with the underlying molecular drivers. This inflammatory state is induced by a dynamic spectrum of inflammatory cytokines, although recent evidence points to the participation of additional soluble inflammatory mediators. Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) represent endogenous signals released upon cell death or damage which trigger a potent innate immune response. We assessed the contribution of two prototypical DAMPs, HMGB1 and S100A8/A9, to MF inflammation. Circulating HMGB1 and S100A8/A9 were elevated in MF patients in parallel to the degree of systemic inflammation and levels increased progressively during advanced disease stages. Patients with elevated DAMPs had higher frequency of adverse clinical features, such as anemia, and inferior survival, suggesting their contribution to disease progression. Monocytes, which are key players in MF inflammation, were identified as a source of S100A8/A9 but not HMGB1 release, while both DAMPs correlated with cell death parameters, such as serum LDH and cell-free DNA, indicating that passive release is an additional mechanism leading to increased DAMPs. HMGB1 and S100A8/A9 promote inflammation through binding to Toll-like receptor (TLR) 4, whereas the former also binds TLR2. Monocytes from MF patients were shown to be hyperactivated at baseline, as reflected by higher CD11b and tissue factor exposure and increased expression levels of proinflammatory cytokines IL-1ß and IL-6. Patient monocytes showed preserved TLR4 and TLR2 expression and were able to mount normal or even exacerbated functional responses and cytokine upregulation following stimulation of TLR4 and TLR2. Elevated levels of endogenous TLR ligands HMGB1 and S100A8/A9 coupled to the finding of preserved or hyperreactive TLR-triggered responses indicate that DAMPs may promote monocyte activation and cytokine production in MF, fueling inflammation. Plasma IL-1ß and IL-6 were elevated in MF and correlated with DAMPs levels, raising the possibility that DAMPs could contribute to cytokine generation in vivo. In conclusion, this study highlights that, in cooperation with classic proinflammatory cytokines, DAMPs represent additional inflammatory mediators that may participate in the generation of MF inflammatory state, potentially providing novel biomarkers of disease progression and new therapeutic targets.

Inhalation of Microplastics Induces Inflammatory Injuries in Multiple Murine Organs via the Toll-like Receptor Pathway.

Previous studies have detected microplastics (MPs) in human biological samples, such as lungs, alveolar lavage fluid, and thrombus. However, whether MPs induce health effects after inhalation are unclear. In this study, fluorescent polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) were found in the thymus, spleen, testes, liver, kidneys, and brain on day 1 or day 3 after one intratracheal instillation. Furthermore, mice showed inflammation in multiple organs, manifested as obvious infiltration of neutrophils and macrophages, increased Toll-like receptors (TLRs), myeloid differentiation primary response protein 88 (MyD88) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), as well as proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-1ß) in the lungs, thymus, spleen, liver, and kidneys after four intratracheal instillations of PS-MPs at once every 2 weeks. Hepatic and renal function indexes were also increased. Subsequently, the inflammatory response in multiple murine organs was significantly alleviated by TLR2 and TLR4 inhibitors. Unexpectedly, we did not find any elevated secretion of monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP)-1 or TNF-α by RAW264.7 macrophages in vitro. Thus, PS-MPs induced inflammatory injuries in multiple murine organs via the TLRs/MyD88/NF-κB pathway in vivo, but not macrophages in vitro. These results may provide theoretical support for healthy protection against PS-MPs and their environmental risk assessment.

Immune mRNA Expression and Fecal Microbiome Composition Change Induced by Djulis (Chenopodium formosanum Koidz.) Supplementation in Aged Mice: A Pilot Study.

Background and Objectives: The aging process has always been associated with a higher susceptibility to chronic inflammatory lung diseases. Several studies have demonstrated the gut microbiome's influence on the lungs through cross-talk or the gut-lungs axis maintaining nutrient-rich microenvironments. Taiwan djulis (Chenopodium formosanum Koidz.) provides antioxidant and anti-inflammatory characteristics that could modulate the gut microbiome. This could induce the gut-lung axis through microbial cross-talk, thus favoring the modulation of lung inflammation. Materials and Methods: Here, we investigate the immune mRNA expression in the spleen, fecal microbiome composition, and hyperplasia of the bronchial epithelium in aged 2-year-old BALB/c mice after 60 days of supplementation of djulis. Results: The pro-inflammatory cytokines IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-1ß, T; cells CD4 and CD8; and TLRs TLR3, TLR4, TLR5, TLR7, TLR8, and TLR9 were reduced in their mRNA expression levels, while the anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-2, IL-4, and IL-10 were highly expressed in the C. formosanum-treated group. Interestingly, the fecal microbiome composition analysis indicated higher diversity in the C. formosanum-treated group and the presence of butyrate-producing bacteria that are beneficial in the gut microbiome. The histopathology showed reduced hyperplasia of the bronchial epithelium based on the degree of lesions. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that Taiwan djulis can modulate the gut microbiome, leading to microbial cross-talk; reducing the mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, T cells, and TLRs; and increasing anti-inflammatory cytokines in the spleen, as cytokines migrate in the lungs, preventing lung inflammation damage in aged mice or the gut-lung axis. Thus, Taiwan djulis could be considered a beneficial dietary component for the older adult population. The major limitation includes a lack of protein validation of cytokines and TLRs and quantification of the T cell population in the spleen as a marker of the gut-lung axis.

Glycation Produces Topologically Different α-Synuclein Oligomeric Strains and Modulates Microglia Response via the NLRP3-Inflammasome Pathway.

α-Synuclein, a key player in Parkinson's disease and other synucleinopathies, possesses an inherently disordered structure that allows for versatile structural changes during aggregation. Microglia, the brain immune cells, respond differently to various α-synuclein strains, influencing their activation and release of harmful molecules, leading to neuronal death. Post-translational modifications, such as glycation in α-synuclein, add a layer of complexity to microglial activation. This study aimed to explore the impact of glycation on α-synuclein aggregation and microglial responses, which have not been studied before. Biophysical analyses revealed that glycated α-synuclein oligomers had distinct morphologies with a more negative and hydrophobic surface, preventing fibril formation and interfering with membrane interactions. Notably, there was increased cytosolic Ca2+ dysregulation, redox stress, and mitochondrial instability compared to cells exposed to unmodified α-synuclein oligomers. Additionally, glycated α-synuclein oligomers exhibited impaired binding to Toll-like receptor 2, compromising downstream signaling. Surprisingly, these oligomers promoted TLR4 endocytosis and degradation. In our experiments with oligomers, glycated α-synuclein oligomers preferred NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated neuroinflammation, contributing differently from unmodified α-synuclein oligomers. In summary, this study unveils the mechanism underlying the effect of glycation on α-synuclein oligomers and highlights the conformation-specific microglial responses toward extracellular α-synuclein.

In vitro study on efficacy of SKF7®, a Malaysian medicinal plant product against SARS-CoV-2.

BACKGROUND: In early 2020, COVID-19 pandemic has mobilized researchers in finding new remedies including repurposing of medicinal plant products focusing on direct-acting antiviral and host-directed therapies. In this study, we performed an in vitro investigation on the standardized Marantodes pumilum extract (SKF7®) focusing on anti-SARS-CoV-2 and anti-inflammatory activities. METHODS: Anti-SARS-CoV-2 potential of the SKF7® was evaluated in SARS-CoV-2-infected Vero E6 cells and SARS-CoV-2-infected A549 cells by cytopathic effect-based assay and RT-qPCR, respectively. Target based assays were performed on the SKF7® against the S1-ACE2 interaction and 3CL protease activities. Anti-inflammatory activity of the SKF7® was evaluated by nitric oxide inhibitory and TLR2/TLR4 receptor blocker assays. RESULTS: The SKF7® inhibited wild-type Wuhan (EC50 of 21.99 µg/mL) and omicron (EC50 of 16.29 µg/mL) SARS-CoV-2 infections in Vero-E6 cells. The SKF7® also inhibited the wild-type SARS-CoV-2 infection in A549 cells (EC50 value of 6.31 µg/mL). The SKF7® prominently inhibited 3CL protease activity. The SKF7® inhibited the LPS induced-TLR4 response with the EC50 of 16.19 µg/mL. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, our in vitro study highlighted anti-SARS-CoV-2 and anti-inflammatory potentials of the SKF7®. Future pre-clinical in vivo studies focusing on antiviral and immunomodulatory potentials of the SKF7® in affecting the COVID-19 pathogenesis are warranted.

Therapeutic Correlation of TLR-4 Mediated NF-κB Inflammatory Pathways in Ischemic Injuries.

Ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury refers to the tissue damage that happens when blood flow returns to tissue after a period of ischemia. I/R injuries are implicated in a large array of pathological conditions, such as cerebral, myocardial, renal, intestinal, retinal and hepatic ischemia. The hallmark of these pathologies is excessive inflammation. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are recognized as significant contributors to inflammation caused by pathogens and, more recently, inflammation caused by injury. TLR-4 activation initiates a series of events that results in activation of nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), which stimulates the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, exacerbating tissue injury. Therefore, through a comprehensive review of current research and experimentation, this investigation elucidates the TLRs signalling pathway and the role of TLR-4/NF-κB in the pathophysiology of I/R injuries. Furthermore, this review highlights the various pharmacological agents (TLR-4/NF-κB inhibitors) with special emphasis on the various ischemic injuries (cerebral, myocardial, renal, intestinal, retinal and hepatic). Future research should prioritise investigating the specific molecular pathways that cause TLR-4/NF-κBmediated inflammation in ischemic injuries. Additionally, efforts should be made to enhance treatment approaches in order to enhance patient outcomes.

Synonymous variant of TLR7 at restriction site rs864058 identified in Covid 19 Pakistani patients.

BACKGROUND: TLR7, the receptor accountable for immune response to RNA viruses, has been studied extensively to identify its variants related to the severity of Covid-19 in different populations worldwide. However, the genotype of Pakistani population is still unknown. This study aimed to determine the TLR7 genotypes and their relation with severity in our population. METHODS: This cross sectional study collected data on 151 Covid-19 positive patients (aged 18-80 years), from June 2022 to May 2023, after an informed consent, from Ziauddin University and Hospital. Prior to that approval from ethics review committee was taken. The demographic variables and comorbidities were recorded along with health status till LAMA (Leave Against Medical Advise), recovery or death. The DNA was extracted from collected blood samples, PCR and Sanger sequencing was done for identification of TLR7 variants. SPSS was used for data analyses and Chi-Square for categorical variables. P-values of <0.05 was considered significant. RESULTS: Out of 151 patients' sequencing was done for 59 samples. The restriction site, rs864058 of TLR7 gene, identified G/A and G/G variants. This missense variant of TLR7 identified at rs864058 of TLR7 gene, has not been previously reported in population control databases. The genotype G/G was main variant of 49 (83%) patients, whereas, G/A was found in 10 (17%). Majority, 25 (51%) of patients with mild covid-19 had GG genotype but results were not significant (P=0.684). Among female patients the main genotype was GA 8 (80%) while male had G/G 29 (59.2%) with significant results (P=0.024). Since G/G genotype was the major genotype, high percentage was found in hypertensives [20 (40.8%)], Diabetics [13 (26.5%)], depression [24 (49%)] and pneumonia patients [20 (40.8%)]. However, significant association (P=0.023) was only found with pneumonia. Males, in majority had severe [17 (68%)] infection and death [40 (26.4%)], whereas, females had mild [14 (25%)] with [12 (7.9%)] deaths. CONCLUSION: A variant rs864058 "G/A" of TLR7, in relation to covid-19 were found in our population. Males were found more at risk of morbidity and mortality due to covid-19. Larger studies are required to further confirm these results.

Vascular injury derived apoptotic exosome-like vesicles trigger autoimmunity.

According to a central tenet of classical immune theory, a healthy immune system must avoid self-reactive lymphocyte clones but we now know that B cells repertoire exhibit some level of autoreactivity. These autoreactive B cells are thought to rely on self-ligands for their clonal selection and survival. Here, we confirm that healthy mice exhibit self-reactive B cell clones that can be stimulated in vitro by agonists of toll-like receptor (TLR) 1/2, TLR4, TLR7 and TLR9 to secrete anti-LG3/perlecan. LG3/perlecan is an antigen packaged in exosome-like structures released by apoptotic endothelial cells (ApoExos) upon vascular injury. We demonstrate that the injection of ApoExos in healthy animals activates the IL-23/IL-17 pro-inflammatory and autoimmune axis, and produces several autoantibodies, including anti-LG3 autoantibodies and hallmark autoantibodies found in systemic lupus erythematosus. We also identify γδT cells as key mediators of the maturation of ApoExos-induced autoantibodies in healthy mice. Altogether we show that ApoExos released by apoptotic endothelial cells display immune-mediating functions that can stimulate the B cells in the normal repertoire to produce autoantibodies. Our work also identifies TLR activation and γδT cells as important modulators of the humoral autoimmune response induced by ApoExos.

The implication of dendritic cells in lung diseases: Immunological role of toll-like receptor 4.

The immune responses play a profound role in the progression of lung lesions in both infectious and non-infectious diseases. Dendritic cells, as the "frontline" immune cells responsible for antigen presentation, set up a bridge between innate and adaptive immunity in the course of these diseases. Among the receptors equipped in dendritic cells, Toll-like receptors are a group of specialized receptors as one type of pattern recognition receptors, capable of sensing environmental signals including invading pathogens and self-antigens. Toll-like receptor 4, a pivotal member of the Toll-like receptor family, was formerly recognized as a receptor sensitive to the outer membrane component lipopolysaccharide derived from Gram-negative bacteria, triggering the subsequent response. Moreover, its other essential roles in immune responses have drawn significant attention in the past decade. A better understanding of the implication of Toll-like receptor 4 in dendritic cells could contribute to the management of pulmonary diseases including pneumonia, pulmonary tuberculosis, asthma, acute lung injury, and lung cancer.

Microcrystal electron diffraction structure of Toll-like receptor 2 TIR-domain-nucleated MyD88 TIR-domain higher-order assembly.

Eukaryotic TIR (Toll/interleukin-1 receptor protein) domains signal via TIR-TIR interactions, either by self-association or by interaction with other TIR domains. In mammals, TIR domains are found in Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and cytoplasmic adaptor proteins involved in pro-inflammatory signaling. Previous work revealed that the MAL TIR domain (MALTIR) nucleates the assembly of MyD88TIR into crystalline arrays in vitro. A microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED) structure of the MyD88TIR assembly has previously been solved, revealing a two-stranded higher-order assembly of TIR domains. In this work, it is demonstrated that the TIR domain of TLR2, which is reported to signal as a heterodimer with either TLR1 or TLR6, induces the formation of crystalline higher-order assemblies of MyD88TIR in vitro, whereas TLR1TIR and TLR6TIR do not. Using an improved data-collection protocol, the MicroED structure of TLR2TIR-induced MyD88TIR microcrystals was determined at a higher resolution (2.85 Å) and with higher completeness (89%) compared with the previous structure of the MALTIR-induced MyD88TIR assembly. Both assemblies exhibit conformational differences in several areas that are important for signaling (for example the BB loop and CD loop) compared with their monomeric structures. These data suggest that TLR2TIR and MALTIR interact with MyD88 in an analogous manner during signaling, nucleating MyD88TIR assemblies unidirectionally.

The Expression of Toll-like Receptors in Cartilage Endplate Cells: A Role of Toll-like Receptor 2 in Pro-Inflammatory and Pro-Catabolic Gene Expression.

INTRODUCTION: The vertebral cartilage endplate (CEP), crucial for intervertebral disc health, is prone to degeneration linked to chronic low back pain, disc degeneration, and Modic changes (MC). While it is known that disc cells express toll-like receptors (TLRs) that recognize pathogen- and damage-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs and DAMPs), it is unclear if CEP cells (CEPCs) share this trait. The CEP has a higher cell density than the disc, making CEPCs an important contributor. This study aimed to identify TLRs on CEPCs and their role in pro-inflammatory and catabolic gene expression. METHODS: Gene expression of TLR1-10 was measured in human CEPs and expanded CEPCs using quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Additionally, surface TLR expression was measured in CEPs grouped into non-MC and MC. CEPCs were stimulated with tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 1 beta, small-molecule TLR agonists, or the 30 kDa N-terminal fibronectin fragment. TLR2 signaling was inhibited with TL2-C29, and TLR2 protein expression was measured with flow cytometry. RESULTS: Ex vivo analysis found all 10 TLRs expressed, while cultured CEPCs lost TLR8 and TLR9 expression. TLR2 expression was significantly increased in MC1 CEPCs, and its expression increased significantly after pro-inflammatory stimulation. Stimulation of the TLR2/6 heterodimer upregulated TLR2 protein expression. The TLR2/1 and TLR2/6 ligands upregulated pro-inflammatory genes and matrix metalloproteases (MMP1, MMP3, and MMP13), and TLR2 inhibition inhibited their upregulation. Endplate resorptive capacity of TLR2 activation was confirmed in a CEP explant model. CONCLUSIONS: The expression of TLR1-10 in CEPCs suggests that the CEP is susceptible to PAMP and DAMP stimulation. Enhanced TLR2 expression in MC1, and generally in CEPCs under inflammatory conditions, has pro-inflammatory and pro-catabolic effects, suggesting a potential role in disc degeneration and MC.

Disturbed Complement Receptor Expression Pattern of B Cells Is Enhanced by Toll-like Receptor CD180 Ligation in Diffuse Cutaneous Systemic Sclerosis.

Autoantibody production is a hallmark of systemic sclerosis (SSc) and the most extensively studied role of B cells in the pathogenesis of the disease. However, the potential involvement of innate immune molecules in B-cell dysfunction in SSc is less understood. B-cell activation is an early event in the pathogenesis of SSc and is influenced by complement receptors (CRs) and Toll-like receptors (TLRs), shaping antibody responses. CR2 and CR1 modulate B-cell activation, and the roles of CR3 and CR4 are associated with autoimmune conditions. We investigated the expression of CRs in B cells from patients with the more severe form of the disease, diffuse cutaneous SSc (dcSSc), and the effect of TLR CD180 ligation on their expression. We found no significant difference in the basal expression of CD21 and CD11c in B cells between dcSSc and healthy controls (HCs). However, reduced basal CD11b expression in B cells in dcSSc compared to HCs, accompanied by a decrease in CD35 and an increase in CD11c expression following CD180 ligation may promote plasma cell formation and autoantibody production. Additionally, we searched for correlations between dcSSc-associated anti-DNA topoisomerase I (Scl-70) autoantibody, anti-citrate synthase (CS) natural autoantibody and complement component 3 (C3) levels and found a negative correlation between C3 and anti-CS autoantibody in dcSSc but not in HCs, supporting the hypothesis that natural autoantibodies could activate the complement system contributing to tissue injury in SSc.

Subgroup Analysis of TLR2, -3, -4 and -8 in Relation to the Severity of Clinical Manifestations of Cervical HPV Infection.

We present the findings of assessing the expression levels of extracellular TLR2 and TLR4 and intracellular TLR3 and TLR8 correlating with the severity of clinical manifestations of HPV infection. A total of 199 women took part in a single-center prospective comparative research study on TLR2, TLR3, TLR4 and TLR8 expression in HPV-related cervical lesions. TLRs' mRNA expression was analyzed using real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Our results indicate the potential significance of TLR3, TLR4 and TLR8 in responding to HPV infection and its progression to SILs and CC, highlighting the importance of HPV polyinfection in relation to TLR4 and TLR8.

Pirarubicin combined with TLR3 or TLR4 agonists enhances anti-tumor efficiency.

BACKGROUND: Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is prone to relapse due to the lack of effective therapeutic targets. Macrophages are the most abundant immune cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME) of breast cancer. Targeting the cross-talk between macrophages and cancer cells provides a more efficient strategy for anti-tumor therapy. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are important players involved in macrophage activation, and TLR agonists are known to play roles in cancer therapy. However, the combination strategy of TLR agonists with chemotherapy drugs is still not well characterized. METHODS: RT-PCR and Western blot were used to detect the expression of TLRs. The communication between breast cancer cells and macrophages were determined by co-culture in vitro. Tumor cells proliferation and migration were investigated by MTT assay and scratch wound assay. The effects of drug combinations and toxic side effects were assessed by immunohistochemistry and Hematoxylin & Eosin staining. RESULTS: Expression of TLR3 and TLR4 were lower in breast tumor tissues compared with adjacent normal tissues. Patients with higher TLR3 or TLR4 expression levels had a better prognosis than those with lower expression levels. TLR3/4 expression was significantly inhibited when breast cancer cells MDA-MB-231 and E0771 were conditioned-cultured with macrophages in vitro and was also inhibited by pirarubicin (THP). However, the combination of TLR agonists and THP could reverse this response and inhibit the proliferation and migration of breast cancer cells. Additionally, this combination significantly reduced the tumor volume and weight in the murine model, increased the expression of TLR3/4 in mouse breast tumors. CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide new ideas for the combination strategy of THP with TLR agonists which improves prognosis of breast cancer.

Toll-like Receptor Expression in Pelodiscus sinensis Reveals Differential Responses after Aeromonas hydrophila Infection.

Background: Toll-like receptor (TLR), as an important pattern recognition receptor, is a bridge between non-specific immunity and specific immunity, and plays a vital role in the disease resistance of aquatic animals. However, the function of TLR in Pelodiscus sinensis is still unclear. Methods and Results: The sequence characteristics and homology of three TLRs (PsTLR2, PsTLR3 and PsTLR5) were determined in this investigation. Their annotation and orthologies were supported by phylogenetic analysis, functional domain prediction, and sequence similarity analysis. qPCR showed that the identified TLRs were expressed in all tissues, among the high expression of PsTLR5 in the brain and liver and the high expression of PsTLR2 and PsTLR3 in the liver. PsTLR2 mRNA expression increased 6.7-fold in the liver 12 h after Aeromonas hydrophila infection, while the mRNA expression of PsTLR3 was down-regulated by 0.29 times in liver and 0.31 times in spleen. The mRNA expression of PsTLR5 was significantly up-regulated in four immune tissues, and it was up-regulated by 122.8 times in the spleen after 72 h infection. Finally, the recombinant proteins of extracellular LRR domains of these three TLRs were obtained by prokaryotic expression technology, and the binding tests were performed to discover their ability of binding pathogenic microorganisms. Microbial binding test showed that rPsTLR2, rPsTLR3 and rPsTLR5 can combine A. hydrophila, Edwardsiella tarda, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae and Candida albicans, while rPsTLR3 can bind A. hydrophila, E. tarda, V. parahaemolyticus and C. albicans. Conclusions: Our findings suggested that TLRs may be crucial to turtles' innate immune response against microbes.

Differential effects of TLR3 and TLR4 activation on MSC-mediated immune regulation.

Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have evolved as an invaluable therapeutic cell type due to their broad therapeutic properties. Bone marrow-derived MSCs are currently being applied in numerous clinical trials, and the initial results have been encouraging. However, heterogeneous responsiveness amongst patients is also being experienced; therefore, the efficacy of MSCs in vivo is still debatable. Host microenvironment plays an essential role in determining the fate of MSCs in vivo. Recent studies have indicated the role of toll-like receptors (TLR) in modulating the biological properties of MSCs. TLRs are expressed by MSCs, and activation of TLR3 and TLR4 can alter the functionality of MSCs. While MSCs can suppress the effector and memory T cell function by promoting regulatory T cells, the effect of TLR activation on MSC-mediated immune cell induction is still not well understood. This study was performed to understand the TLR licensing of MSCs and its impact on MSC-mediated immunomodulation. We found that TLR3 mediated activation of MSCs (TLR3-MSCs) increased the expression of G-CSF & IL-10 while TLR4-mediated activation of MSCs led to an increase in CXCL-1, CXCL-10, and CXCL-12. To study the immunological aspect, an in vitro co-culture model was established-to imitate the brief in vivo interaction of MSCs and immune cells. We found that TLR3-MSCs led to increase in CD4 and CD8 naive T (TNAI) cells and vice versa for effector (TEFF) and memory T (TMEM) cells, while TLR4-MSCs did not show any effect. Moreover, only TLR3-MSCs led to a non-significant increase in the regulatory T cells (TREGS) and Double negative regulatory cells. No change in B cell profile was evident while TLR3-MSCs depicted an increasing trend in regulatory B cells which was not statistically significant. TLR3 MSCs also inhibited the T cell proliferation in our setup. Our data indicate that TLR3 priming may regulate the function of MSCs through immunomodulation. Understanding the role of TLRs and other microenvironmental factors causing subdued responses of MSCs in vivo would allow the uninhibited use of MSCs for many diseased conditions.

Roles of Toll-like Receptor Signaling in Inflammatory Bone Resorption.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are pattern recognition receptors expressed in immune cells, including neutrophils, macrophages, and dendritic cells. Microbe-associated molecular patterns, including bacterial components, membranes, nucleic acids, and flagella are recognized by TLRs in inflammatory immune responses. Periodontal disease is an inflammatory disease known to cause local infections associated with gingival inflammation, subsequently leading to alveolar bone resorption. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is a key mediator of TLR-induced inflammatory bone resorption. We previously reported that membrane-bound PGE synthase (mPGES-1)-deficient mice failed to induce bone resorption by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a major pathogenic factor involved in periodontal bone resorption. Further experiments exploring specific pathogen-promoting osteoclast differentiation revealed that various TLR ligands induced osteoclast differentiation in a co-culture model. The ligands for TLR2/1, TLR2/6, TLR3, and TLR5, as well as TLR4, induce osteoclast differentiation associated with the production of PGE2 and the receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa B ligand (RANKL), an inevitable inducer of osteoclast differentiation in osteoblasts. In vivo, local injection of TLR ligands, including TLR2/1, TLR2/6, and TLR3, resulted in severe alveolar bone resorption. This review summarizes the latest findings on TLR-mediated osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption in inflammatory diseases, such as periodontal diseases.

New Horizons in the Diagnosis of Gastric Cancer: The Importance of Selected Toll-like Receptors in Immunopathogenesis Depending on the Stage, Clinical Subtype, and Gender of Newly Diagnosed Patients.

INTRODUCTION: Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a vital role in the innate immune response, recognizing pathogens and initiating the inflammatory response. Research suggests that TLRs may also have a significant impact on the development and progression of cancers, including gastric cancer (GC). Understanding the role of individual TLRs in the immunopathogenesis of gastric cancer may provide new information necessary to develop more effective diagnostic and therapeutic methods. AIM OF THE STUDY: This study aimed to determine the role of selected TLR-2, -3, -4, and -9 in the immunopathogenesis of patients with newly diagnosed and untreated gastric cancer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study included 60 newly diagnosed, untreated GC patients and 25 healthy volunteers. The research included analyses assessing the percentage of the tested TLRs on T and B lymphocyte subpopulations using multicolor flow cytometry and assessing their concentration in the serum of the examined patients using ELISA tests. The statistical analyses performed included a comparison of patients in individual stages of gastric cancer, an analysis of the most common clinical subtypes of gastric cancer, and a comparative analysis of differences in the gender of recruited patients. RESULTS: Our studies showed different expression levels of TLR-2, -3, -4, and -9 on T and B lymphocyte subpopulations, as well as their different concentrations in patients' serum. Significant differences in the expression of these receptors were observed depending on the stage of gastric cancer and its clinical subtypes. These differences were also visible in the context of patient gender. SUMMARY: The results of our studies suggest that TLR-2, -3, -4, and -9 may play an important role in the immunopathogenesis of gastric cancer. The differential expression of these receptors depending on the stage of the disease, clinical subtype, and gender of patients may have potential diagnostic and therapeutic significance. Further research is necessary to understand better the mechanisms of action of TLRs in gastric cancer and to apply this knowledge in clinical practice.

Changes in Innate Immunity and Microbiome in Different Aging Phenotypes.

The indicators of innate immunity and the composition of the microbiome in the nasopharyngeal mucosa in centenarians with different aging phenotypes were analyzed. A significant increase in the expression of pattern-recognizing receptor genes (TLR2, TLR4, and NLRP3) and proinflammatory cytokines (IL1B, IL18) was shown in the group of centenarians with pathological aging phenotype. In centenarians with successful aging phenotype, increased diversity of the microbiome composition was observed. At the same time, a moderate inverse correlation was found between an increase in the growth of the commensal bacterium Streptococcus salivarius and a decrease in the expression of proinflammatory cytokine genes IL1B and IL18. These findings can serve as biomarkers for the timely identification of the phenotype of aging in senile and elderly people.