Locking plate femur fracture repair in a juvenile Western chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) in Sierra Leone.

This case reports the successful management of a traumatic diaphyseal femoral fracture in an infant Western chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) from a rescue centre in Sierra Leone using a 2.4-mm intramedullary pin and two 2.7-mm String of Pearls™ locking plates. Locking plate use has not been previously described in chimpanzees.

Sex and season predict wounds in zoo-housed Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata): A multi-institutional study.

Japanese macaque societies are characterized by frequent intragroup conflict both in free-ranging and zoo-housed conditions. In zoos, understanding the factors that contribute to wounding is of interest because this knowledge can aid in proactive husbandry and management planning that can minimize the negative impacts wounding can have on individual welfare. This study sought to determine whether the variables sex, season and age predicted wounding rates. Data were collected for 24 months on 119 Japanese macaques living in 10 zoos, and we analyzed the contribution of variables using generalized linear mixed models. A total of 1,007 wounds were reported, and the best model included the interaction between sex and season. Follow-up analyses revealed that females incurred more wounds than males, and this sex difference was more pronounced during the breeding compared to the nonbreeding season. On average, individuals received 4.67 (±SEM: 0.55) wounds per year and 77.31% of the population incurred at least one wound in the study period. The majority of wounds were superficial and did not require veterinary intervention. Wound locations were not randomly distributed across body regions and were most often reported on the face. Finally, macaques living in larger social groups experienced more wounds, on average. This study represents the first quantification of wounding in this species and may provide insight to help inform husbandry and management strategies in zoos.

An exploration into the efficacy of public warning signs: A zoo case study.

Unauthorised feeding and touching of the animals by visitors to zoos and wildlife parks pose serious threats to the health of both animals and visitors alike. We tested the efficacy of four different "do not feed" signs designed to prevent zoo visitors from feeding a group of meerkats. Signs consisted of one of two different written messages and imagery of either a pair of watching human eyes, or meerkat pawprints as a control. Covert observation of visitor behaviour in the presence and absence of the signs was analysed. Visitors were significantly less likely to feed the meerkats when signs were present, than when they were absent. The effect of the signs was specific to the targeted behaviour in that feeding was reduced, but attempts to touch the meerkats increased with the presence of the signs. We did not find that the presence of watching eyes or the different wording on the signs affected the likelihood of visitors feeding the meerkats. We also examined factors that influenced the likelihood of visitors attending to the signs. We found that children were more likely to attend to signs than adults which has important implications for the design of such signs. Together our findings show that signs are effective in reducing the unwanted behaviours they target but may also result in displacement of these negative behaviours and that children are more likely to attend to these signs than adults.

Trauma rates and patterns in specific pathogen free (SPF) rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) groups.

There are some predictable patterns of trauma in captive rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) social groups. Several factors have been documented to contribute to these patterns, including group formation of unrelated animals, and the establishment of dominance ranks. Here, we report on how socially induced trauma in groups of rhesus monkeys is influenced by the breeding season, numbers of matrilines per group and matriline size. We analyzed 3 years of data collected from veterinary admittance logs for four groups in our specific pathogen free (SPF) breeding colony. Since the groups differed in time from formation, both the numbers of matrilines and the composition of those matrilines were different. Across the four groups, trauma rates were significantly higher during the fall breeding season than the spring and summer months when births occur. The group that was formed most recently, comprised of the greatest number of matrilines but fewest related animals, showed significantly higher rates of trauma than the older social groups. Further, the middle and lowest ranking families received signifincantly higher rates of trauma than the highest ranking families, suggesting a rank-related phenomenon. Additionally, there was a significant negative correlation between numbers of adult females in a matriline and rates of trauma observed in each matriline, but the numbers of adult females are significantly higher in the top ranked families compared to all of the other matrilines. These findings suggest that trauma rates increase during the breeding season and may be exacerbated in recently formed breeding groups that have smaller matrilines and reduced opportunities for social support to mitigate rank-related aggression. Management practices should be devised to ensure adequate matrilineal size to decrease rates of trauma in captive rhesus macaque groups.

Patterns of wounding in hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas) in North American zoos.

In North American zoos, hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas) have traditionally been housed as single one-male units (single male groups). In recent years, efforts have been made to house hamadryas in groups composed of multiple one-male units (multi-male groups) to more closely mirror their natural social structure, in addition to all-male or bachelor groups to manage surplus males. Given that the majority of social conflict in hamadryas occurs between males during the acquisition and defense of females, it was thought that managing hamadryas in these multi-male groups would result in increased rates of wounding. To assess this, incidences of wounding were recorded over one year across seven zoos (10 social groups, 59 individuals). Overall, we found no difference in wounding rates between group types, or by sex, and group type. These data provide evidence that managing hamadryas in multi-male and bachelor groups is an effective husbandry practice that does not negatively impact the welfare of the individuals, in addition to providing a more species-appropriate social setting for hamadryas in zoos. As the management of hamadryas in multi-male and bachelor groups continues and expands, additional research will be needed to understand what factors contribute to optimal cohesion, and welfare of groups and if wounding rates change as group size continues to increase.

Lightning safety of animals.

This paper addresses a concurrent multidisciplinary problem: animal safety against lightning hazards. In regions where lightning is prevalent, either seasonally or throughout the year, a considerable number of wild, captive and tame animals are injured due to lightning generated effects. The paper discusses all possible injury mechanisms, focusing mainly on animals with commercial value. A large number of cases from several countries have been analyzed. Economically and practically viable engineering solutions are proposed to address the issues related to the lightning threats discussed.

Femoral fracture repair using a locking plate technique in an adult captive polar bear (Ursus maritimus).

OBJECTIVE: To report successful femoral fracture repair in a polar bear. STUDY DESIGN: Case report. ANIMALS: Female polar bear (Ursus maritimus) 5 years and approximately 250 kg. METHODS: A closed, complete, comminuted fracture of the distal midshaft femur was successfully reduced and stabilized using a compression plating technique with 2 specialized human femur plates offering axial, rotational, and bending support, and allowing the bone to share loads with the implant. Postoperative radiographs were obtained at 11.5 weeks, 11 months, and 24 months. RESULTS: Bone healing characterized by marked periosteal reaction was evident at 11 months with extensive remodeling evident at 24 months. No complications were noted. CONCLUSIONS: Distal mid shaft femoral fracture was reduced, stabilized, and healed in an adult polar bear with a locking plate technique using 2 plates. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Previously, femoral fractures in polar bears were considered irreparable. Use of 2 plates applied with a locking plate technique can result in successful fracture repair despite large body weight and inability to restrict postoperative activity.

Retrospective analysis of wound characteristics and tetanus development in captive macaques.

Traumatic wounds and access to outdoor enclosures containing soil contribute to development of tetanus in nonhuman primates. A retrospective, matched case-control study was conducted at a primate center to evaluate these factors by analysis of medical records of animals sustaining traumatic injuries during a 3-yr study period. Thirty-one macaques with traumatic injuries and a clinical diagnosis of tetanus were selected as cases, and 62 macaques with traumatic injuries and no diagnosis of tetanus were selected as controls. For an animal with injuries to the digits, the odds of developing tetanus were 9.6 times those of a similar animal without injuries to the digits (Odds Ratio [OR] = 9.55, 95% CI = 1.56-58.59); with injuries to the tail, the odds of developing tetanus were 8.0 times those of a similar animal without injuries to the tail (OR = 7.95, 95% CI = 0.82-77.04); and with injuries in more than one location, the odds of developing tetanus were 8.5 times those for a similar animal with injuries in just one location (OR = 8.45, 95% CI = 1.01-70.46). A nonhuman primate with injuries to the leg was less likely to develop tetanus than a similar nonhuman primate without injuries to the leg (OR = 0.19, 95% CI = 0.03-1.2). Results indicated that wound location is associated with development of tetanus infection in rhesus macaques. Identification of high-risk trauma cases will allow better allocation of wound management and tetanus prophylaxis in institutions, especially in those housing nonhuman primates outdoors.

Antebrachial fractures in four captive polar bears (Ursus maritimus).

OBJECTIVE: To identify common risk factors for antebrachial fractures of captive polar bears and to evaluate outcome after fracture repair. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective study. ANIMALS: Four captive polar bears. METHODS: United States zoological collections were surveyed to determine the prevalence of fractures in captive polar bears. Medical records of captive polar bears that had antebrachial fractures were reviewed for signalment, history, physical and radiographic findings, fracture management, postoperative care, and outcome. Serum samples from healthy bears and bears with antebrachial fractures were assayed for 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-OHD) concentrations. RESULTS: Nineteen fractures (12 polar bears) occurred from 1974 to 2002; 12 fractures involved the antebrachium. Management of 4 antebrachial fractures was reviewed; 3 were repaired by internal fixation and 1 by external coaptation. Fractures healed and bears were returned to exhibit on average 3 months postfracture. Of 11 serum samples assayed for 25-OHD concentrations, 6 were below normal, 1 was low normal and 4 were within normal reference intervals. The 7 bears with subnormal or low normal values were housed in 2 zoos. Subnormal vitamin D concentrations were identified in 2 of 3 bears with fractures. CONCLUSIONS: Fracture disease is not uncommon in captive polar bears. Additional research is necessary to explore the role of nutrition in polar bear fracture disease. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Internal fixation of antebrachial fractures is feasible and reasonably well tolerated in captive polar bears.

Crowding stress and violent injuries among behaviorally inhibited rhesus macaques.

Environmental stressors and stable individual differences in human behavior have both been implicated etiologically in injuries. Because stress-related injuries are difficult to study experimentally in humans, the authors examined injury incidence in a troop of 21 male and 15 female free-ranging rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) before, during, and after a 6-month group confinement. Individual differences in behavioral inhibition to novelty were assessed, using multiple, quantified observations of behavior by 3 independent raters during 3 previous years. Incidence and severity of medically attended injuries were ascertained from veterinary records over a 2-year study period. A 5-fold increase in the incidence of injuries was documented during confinement stress, and an interaction was found between the stressor and behavioral inhibition in the prediction of injury incidence. Highly inhibited animals had significantly higher injury rates during confinement, compared with their uninhibited peers, but equal or lower rates in the low stress periods that preceded and followed confinement. Inhibited individuals appeared to have been specifically targeted for violence during the group stressor but were protected under normative, more predictable conditions.

Clinical disorders in armadillos (Dasypodidae, Edentata) in captivity.

The major health problems found in 113 armadillos are presented and correlated with management in captivity. The most common of 217 recorded clinical disorders involved injury (28.5%), digestive system (17.9%), respiratory system (15.2%), nutritional deficiency (13.3%), skin problems (3.6%), septicaemia (1.8%), nervous system (1.3%), urinary system (0.9%) and effects of environmental (0.9%), with 14.7% of the cases inconclusive. Internal parasites were identified in 42.0% of faeces samples, mainly eggs of helminths (66.6%), of which the commonest were Ancylostoma sp. (33.3%), Strongyloides sp. (30.5%), Ascaris sp. (25.0%), Trichuris sp. (11.1%), and also protozoa (13.0%). Enterobacteriaceae were the bacteria most frequently isolated, with Escherichia coli the most prevalent, followed by Salmonella sp. and Enterobacter aerogenes. The most successful treatments are listed. The influence of some captive factors on the onset of the diseases was also analysed: donated animals 91.1% and zoo born 8.8%; quarantine enclosure 84.0% and exhibition 15.0%; and related to time in captivity, 92.2% occurred with animals in the first 6 months in the zoo and 7.8% with animals more than 6 months.

Spontaneously occurring fractures of the spine in skeletally immature animals.

STUDY DESIGN: Twelve spontaneously occurring fractures of the spin in nine skeletally immature animals were investigated. OBJECTIVES: These fractures were analyzed radiographically, morphologically, and histologically. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: The most commonly injured regions were the cervical and lumbar regions. Multiple-level fractures were noted in three specimens. METHODS: Morphologic and histologic examination invariably detected fractures in cases of spinal cord injury without radiographic abnormality. RESULTS: The end-plate physes and synchondroses were found to be the "weak links" for propagation of fractures. Radiographically benign-appearing ring apophyseal fractures were found histologically to propagate from the end-plate physis through the vertebral body via the contiguous neurocentral synchondroses. CONCLUSIONS: The observed morphologic and histologic fracture patterns should provide a better understanding of the probable comparable pathoanatomy of spine and spinal cord injuries in children.