[Research activities of cosmonauts in long-duration orbital missions].

The paper presents the view of space medicine and human factor experts on the problems of cosmonaut's research activities. Readiness of ISS crewmembers for conducting experiments and research equipment handling depends on the pre-flight training quality and course of adaptation to the flight conditions, the latter of particular criticality for participation in human use tests as an object.

Multi-team dynamics and distributed expertise in imission operations.

The evolution of space exploration has brought an increased awareness of the social and socio-technical issues associated with team performance and task coordination, both for the onboard astronauts and in mission control. Spaceflight operations create a unique environment in which to address classic group dynamics topics including communication, group process, knowledge development and sharing, and time-critical task performance. Mission operations in the early years of the 21st century have developed into a set of complex, multi-team task settings incorporating multiple mission control teams and flight crews interacting in novel ways. These more complex operational settings help highlight the emergence of a new paradigm of distributed supervisory coordination, and the need to consider multiple dimensions of expertise being supported and exchanged among team members. The creation of new mission profiles with very long-duration time scales (months, rather than days) for the International Space Station, as well as planned exploration missions to the Moon and Mars, emphasize fundamental distinctions from the 40 yr from Mercury to the Space Shuttle. Issues in distributed expertise and information flow in mission control settings from two related perspectives are described. A general conceptual view of knowledge sharing and task synchronization is presented within the context of the mission control environment. This conceptual presentation is supplemented by analysis of quasi-experimental data collected from actual flight controllers at NASA-Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX.

Crew collaboration in space: a naturalistic decision-making perspective.

Successful long-duration space missions will depend on the ability of crewmembers to respond promptly and effectively to unanticipated problems that arise under highly stressful conditions. Naturalistic decision making (NDM) exploits the knowledge and experience of decision makers in meaningful work domains, especially complex sociotechnical systems, including aviation and space. Decision making in these ambiguous, dynamic, high-risk environments is a complex task that involves defining the nature of the problem and crafting a response to achieve one's goals. Goal conflicts, time pressures, and uncertain outcomes may further complicate the process. This paper reviews theory and research pertaining to the NDM model and traces some of the implications for space crews and other groups that perform meaningful work in extreme environments. It concludes with specific recommendations for preparing exploration crews to use NDM effectively.

The code of conduct for International Space Station crews.

On 15 September 2000 in Washington DC, the Multilateral Coordination Board (MCB), the highest-level cooperative body established by the Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs) pertaining to the International Space Station (ISS) Programme signed early in 1998 by NASA and each of the Cooperating Agencies designated by the other ISS Partners (i.e. the Russian Space Agency, ESA, the Government of Japan and the Canadian Space Agency), approved the Code of Conduct for International Space Station Crews. This document contains a set of standards agreed by all Partners to govern the conduct of ISS crew members, starting with the first expedition crew launched from Baikonur in Kazakhstan on 31 October 2000. These standards had been developed over the previous six months by teams of Agency officials, working in close consultation with the competent authorities of the Partner States.

[Intergral criterion and prediction of cosmonauts professional reliability in flight]. / Integral'naia otsenka i prognoz professional'noi nadezhnosti kosmonavtov v polete.

Discussed is the problem of professional reliability of cosmonauts simulating manual docking of transport vehicle SOYUZ-TM to space station MIR during acute adaptation to microgravity. A new concept of cosmonaut's reliability qualification is based on the parameters that characterize the systemic body response to job-related factors: integral efficiency and psychophysiological "cost". Justification is given to the statistic methodology of the change-over from prime job quality indices and the functional state of human to integral. Underlined is the possibility to apply this methodical approach to enhancement of the program of assessment and recovery of the professional reliability of cosmonauts in flight.

[An analysis of standards documents on the radiation safety problem in space flights and the proposals for their improvement]. / Analiz normativnykh dokumentov po probleme radiatsionnoi bezopasnosti kosmicheskikh poletov i predlozheniia po ikh sovershenstvovaniiu.

The paper considers in retrospective the criteria of radiation hazard during space flight, and approaches to safeguarding the radiation safety to crew members adopted in a sequence of Russian and US standards defining the space radiation limits. Based on comparison of the magnitudes of radiation risk in space flight, total radiation risk over lifetime, the risk of fatal cancer, and risk relation to age, the most meaningful and age-independent criterion has been chosen to set limits and admissible total doses over cosmonaut's career. Justification is given to the range of these doses that still ensures socially acceptable levels of health and performance by the end of space career. Impliable dose limits for critical tissues (blood-forming organs, skin, lenticular epithelium) in consequence of a single acute or continuous exposure for a month, a year or career are discussed.

Use of personal characteristics in the selection of astronauts.

Which personal characteristics are used in selecting astronauts? We decided to examine this question using National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) archival data collected on 2288 applicants. Undergraduate grade point average, graduate grade point average, and several facets of aviation experience were the best predictors of who was interviewed and then selected to be an astronaut. Adjustments were made to insure that a sufficient number of women and minority group members were selected, while still maintaining high selection standards. The selection process seems well-designed, and follows explicit NASA guidelines. We suggest simplifying the selection process by using a single discriminant function as an interview and/or selection criterion.