A systematic review of self-regulation measures in children: Exploring characteristics and psychometric properties.

Self-regulation, which encompasses cognitive, behavioural, and emotional domains, poses challenges in consistent measurement due to diverse definitions and conceptual complexities. In recognition of its profound impact on long-term mental health and wellbeing in children, this systematic review examined available self-regulation measures for children and young people between 1 and 18 years of age. The systematic review followed the COSMIN taxonomy and reported on the measurement tools' characteristics and psychometric properties. The methodology and reporting were guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement and checklist. The protocol for this review was registered with PROSPERO (Number CRD42020155809). A search of six databases (Embase, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Scopus, CINAHL and ERIC) was performed, and grey literature was searched to identify studies on the psychometric properties of measures assessing all three domains (cognitive, behavioural, and emotional) of self-regulation. The types of psychometric properties were examined against the COSMIN taxonomy of measurement properties. A total of 15,583 studies were identified, and 48 of these met the criteria that reported psychometric properties of 23 self-regulation measures assessing all three domains of self-regulation. Most measures relied on self-reports for ages 11-17, and all had limited psychometric evaluation. The Emotion Regulation Checklist was the most studied measure. Notably, none of the studies evaluated measurement error. The content validity was inadequately evaluated, particularly in terms of comprehensiveness and comprehensibility. Future research should focus on developing measures for young children, evaluating measurement error, and enhancing content validity for comprehensive understanding and effective intervention.

Physical activity moderated the mediating effect of self-control between bullying victimization and mobile phone addiction among college students.

This study aims to investigate the relationship between bullying victimization and mobile phone addiction (MPA) among college students, taking into consideration the mediating role of self-control and the moderating role of physical activity. A self-report survey was administered to college students from 4 universities in Guangxi, Liaoning, and Hunan provinces in China. Participants were asked to report their experiences of bullying victimization, level of MPA, self-control, and physical activity. Descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and regression analysis were conducted to analyze the data. Mediation and moderation models were subsequently established to examine the relationships between variables. The results indicated a positive correlation between bullying victimization and MPA among college students. Additionally, bullying victimization was negatively correlated with self-control. Bullying victimization significantly predicted MPA, and self-control partially mediated this relationship. Furthermore, physical activity moderated the association between bullying victimization and self-control among college students. The findings suggest that self-control plays a partial mediating role in the relationship between bullying victimization and MPA among college students. Moreover, physical activity weakens the association between bullying victimization and self-control. Therefore, promoting physical activity to reduce MPA among college students who have experienced bullying victimization is highly recommended.

The influence of exercise adherence on peace of mind among Chinese college students: a moderated chain mediation model.

Introduction: Exercising adherence constitutes a pivotal approach for college students to maintain physical well-being, while peace of mind serves as a crucial indicator of their psychological health. However, few previous studies have delved into the relationship between these two variables. Our study endeavors to investigate the association between the exercise adherence and the peace of mind of college students. Methods: The Exercise Adherence Questionnaire, Meaning in Life Questionnaire, Brief Self-Control Scale, Peace of Mind Scale, and Self Acceptance Questionnaire were tested on 1,520 college students from four universities in western China, and SPSS 25.0 and Mplus 8.3 were used for analysis. Results: The results indicate a significant positive correlation between exercise adherence and meaning in life (r = 0.208, p < 0.001), self-control (r = 0.210, p < 0.001), and peace of mind (r = 0.237, p < 0.001) among college students. Mediation analysis reveals that exercise adherence has a significant direct effect on peace of mind in college students, with an effect size of 0.087. Moreover, meaning in life and self-control independently mediate the relationship between exercise adherence and peace of mind, with mediation effect sizes of 0.046 and 0.052, respectively. Additionally, meaning in life and self-control collectively exhibit a chain mediation effect, with a mediation effect size of 0.032. At the same time, the interaction terms of meaning in life and self-acceptance had a significant predictive effect on self-control (b = 0.090, p = 0.002). Conclusion: This study reveals both the relationship and intrinsic mechanisms by which exercise adherence influences the peace of mind among college students. Exercise adherence demonstrates a direct positive impact on peace of mind. Additionally, the association between exercise adherence and peace of mind is influenced by the individual mediating effects of meaning in life and self-control, as well as the chain mediation effect of meaning in life and self-control. Moreover, self-acceptance plays a positive role in regulating the relationship between meaning in life and self-control in the chain mediated pathway. This suggests that we need to encourage college students to develop the habit of exercise adherence and to carry out public welfare activities to enhance their meaning in life, self-control and self-acceptance, which will effectively promote their mental health.

Understanding the relationships among adolescents' internet dependence, reward, cognitive control processing, and learning burnout: a network perspective in China.

Alterations in the reward and cognitive control systems are commonly observed among adolescents with internet dependence (ID), and this impairment is often accompanied by social dysfunctions, such as academic burnout. However, the intercorrelations among ID, reward, cognitive control processing, and learning burnout remain unclear. We recruited 1074 Chinese adolescents to investigate the complex interrelationships among these variables using network analysis. The resulting network revealed patterns that connected ID to the behavioral inhibition/activation system (BIS/BAS), self-control, and learning burnout; these results exhibited reasonable stability and test-retest consistency. Throughout the network, the node of BAS-drive was the critical influencing factor, and the node of self-control was the protection factor. In addition, several symptoms of learning burnout and ID were positively associated with sensitivity to punishment. As revealed by the network comparison test, the network constructed among internet dependent (ID) group differed from the network constructed among internet nondependent (IND) group not only in the edges between BIS and learning burnout but also in terms of the edges associated with learning burnout. In conclusion, this study provides insights into the complex mechanisms underlying ID among adolescents from the perspective of the network relationships between core influencing factors and negative consequences. It validates the dual-system model of risky behavior among adolescents and offers a foundation for early warning and interventions for ID in this context.

COVID-19-Related Social Isolation, Self-Control, and Internet Gaming Disorder Among Chinese University Students: Cross-Sectional Survey.

BACKGROUND: Internet gaming disorder among university students has become a great concern for university counsellors worldwide since the COVID-19 pandemic. The factors influencing the development of internet gaming disorder in students during the COVID-19 pandemic could be different from those before the pandemic. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to explore the associations among social isolation, self-control, and internet gaming disorder in Chinese university students and to examine whether self-control mediates the positive effects of social isolation on internet gaming disorder. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was employed to collect data from university students in Shandong province of China from April to September 2022. The Isolation subscale of the Self-Compassion Scale, Self-Control Scale, and Internet Gaming Disorder Scale were used to assess the social isolation, self-control, and internet gaming disorder among university students, respectively. Models 4 and 5 of PROCESS software were used to analyze the mediating role of self-control and the moderating role of gender on the association between social isolation and internet gaming disorder. RESULTS: A total of 479 students were recruited from 6 universities located in 3 different regions of Shandong, China. Students had low levels of internet gaming disorder and moderate levels of social isolation and self-control, with mean scores of 8.94 (SD 9.06), 12.04 (SD 3.53), and 57.15 (SD 8.44), respectively. Social isolation was positively correlated with internet gaming disorder (r=0.217; P<.001), and self-control was negatively correlated with social isolation (r=-0.355; P<.001) and internet gaming disorder (r=-0.260; P<.001). Self-control played a mediating role in the association between social isolation and internet gaming disorder (ß=-.185, 95% CI -.295 to -.087). The effects of social isolation on internet gaming disorder among female students were lower than those among male students. CONCLUSIONS: Self-control was a mediator in the association between social isolation and internet gaming disorder. Moreover, gender played a moderating role in the association between social isolation and internet gaming disorder. This study highlights the need to alleviate the development of internet gaming disorder among students during a pandemic, especially that of male students. Effective interventions that lessen social isolation and promote self-control should be developed.

From willpower to strategies: Existing insights and outstanding issues in self-control strategy use in daily life.

This paper focuses on recent advances in research on strategies that support self-control in everyday life. No one strategy or set of strategies appears to be effective at all times and in all situations. To understand effective self-control, we must expand our understanding of how strategies fit the situation and the person. To this end, we propose researching unexplored aspects of situations, how self-control strategies develop in the first place, and the role of emotion regulation in self-control strategy effectiveness. We also highlight methodological blind spots and offer ways to correct them and introduce new methodological approaches to best capture self-control strategies in everyday life.

Self-control and behavioral public policy.

How everyday self-control conflicts are resolved can have significant long-term personal and societal consequences, as readily illustrated by obesity, smoking, and unsustainable consumption. Here, we delineate connections between current self-control research and policymaking. We first discuss the achievements and shortcomings of the prevailing individual-level focus in self-control research. Next, we propose a multilevel perspective that incorporates structural factors operating at the micro, meso, and macro levels as the root cause of many issues framed as self-control problems. We then introduce a comprehensive framework (4LP) synthesizing four key levers for public policymaking. We conclude that future policy research may benefit from closer, interdisciplinary collaboration to better represent the complex interplay between individual agency and structural factors regarding self-control outcomes.

Personality traits and self-control: The moderating role of neuroticism.

Self-control is important for mental and physical health, and personality traits are vital antecedents for self-control. Previous studies suggest that conscientiousness and extraversion enhance self-control, whereas neuroticism hampers it. However, the link between personality and self-control has mostly been studied using a narrow conceptualization of self-control, as the ability to resist impulses, thus excluding initiatory self-control. Also, no studies have examined whether and how personality traits interact with one another to increase, or reduce, self-control. Data were collected on two occasions from 480 military cadets (31.04% female) to examine the relationship between the Big Five personality traits and self-control (general, inhibitory, and initiatory self-control). Furthermore, the study investigated the moderating role of neuroticism, as a trait and as individual facets, on the relationship between the other personality traits and self-control. Although neuroticism correlated negatively with all self-control dimensions, there were unique relations only with general and inhibitory self-control. Extraversion correlated positively with all self-control dimensions but was only uniquely related to initiatory self-control. Conscientiousness correlated positively with all self-control dimensions and this pattern persisted when we assessed the unique effects. Openness to experience and agreeableness correlated positively with general and inhibitory self-control but had no unique effects on any of the self-control dimensions. Neuroticism negatively moderated the relationship between extraversion and both general and inhibitory self-control, and the relationship between conscientiousness and both general and initiatory self-control. The facet-level analysis confirmed the general patterns and provided further detail on which facets of neuroticism were the most influential as moderators. In conclusion, the study highlights the critical role of different types of self-control, and that neuroticism plays a cardinal role for the effects of conscientiousness and extraversion on self-control.

Self-control as mediator and social support as moderator in stress-relapse dynamics of substance dependency.

Substance Use Disorders (SUDs) present a significant challenge to global public health, with prolonged drug use not only impairing individual health but also hindering social development. Despite various interventions aimed at addressing drug abuse and dependence, a high relapse rate remains a prominent issue. In light of this, this study aims to explore the impact of perceived stress on the relapse of individuals with SUDs, as well as the mediating role of self-control and the moderating role of social support, in hopes of providing new perspectives for interventions to reduce the risk of relapse among individuals with SUDs. By utilizing a convenience sampling method, 420 male individuals with SUDs were recruited from detoxification centers in Guangxi, China. They completed questionnaires on perceived stress, self-control, social support, and tendencies towards relapse. A total of 401 valid datasets were obtained and analyzed using the SPSS Process plugin to conduct a moderated mediation model analysis. Results: (1) Perceived stress had a positive impact on the relapse of individuals with SUDs, (2) Self-control played a partial mediating role between perceived stress and the relapse, (3) The direct effect of perceived stress on the relapse and its first half of the indirect effect were moderated by social support. The research emphasize the critical importance of learning stress management strategies, enhancing self-control, and receiving comprehensive social support in the prevention and treatment of substance dependence. By strengthening self-control and social support as both internal and external resources, the likelihood of relapse among individuals with SUDs can be reduced, contributing to more effective and comprehensive drug rehabilitation strategies.

Early Change as a Predictor of Treatment Outcome in Patients with a Personality Disorder.

A significant proportion of patients with a personality disorder do not benefit from treatment. Monitoring treatment progress can help adjust ineffective treatments. This study examined whether early changes in symptoms and personality dysfunction during the first phase of therapy could predict treatment outcomes. Data from 841 patients who received specialized treatment for personality disorders were analyzed. The study focused on whether changes in the Outcome Questionnaire-45.2 (OQ-45.2) symptom distress scale (SD), the General Assessment of Personality Disorder (GAPD), and Severity Indices of Personality Problems (SIPP) in the early phase of therapy predicted post-treatment personality dysfunction, as measured by the SIPP and GAPD. Early changes within a specific SIPP domain were the strongest predictors of post-treatment outcomes in that same domain. Early changes in symptoms significantly predicted outcomes in Self-Control, Relational Functioning, and Identity Integration, while the GAPD predicted outcomes in Self-Control and Social Attunement on the SIPP. For the GAPD, early changes on the GAPD itself, followed by early changes on the OQ-45 SD and the SIPP domain Social Attunement, were significant predictors. Thus, when it comes to personality dysfunction, early changes in a specific domain or measure are the best predictors of outcomes in that same domain. While the OQ-45 predicted some aspects of personality dysfunction, it should not replace disorder-specific measures. Additionally, the SIPP domains and the GAPD should not be used interchangeably to predict each other. In sum, considering these factors, monitoring early change can be useful in assessing progress in the treatment of patients with personality disorders.

Self-control and self-expression.

Does self-control express or suppress our true selves? This article reviews the emerging body of literature on the effect of self-control on authentic self-expression from the actors' (self-signaling) and the observers' (other-signaling) perspective. While actors can experience self-control as either expression or suppression of the self, individual differences in decision-making or personal values can predict when self-control is more likely to be experienced in one way or the other. Self-control also signals to observers both positive (e.g., competent, trustworthy, powerful) and negative (e.g., inauthentic, robotic, less warm) identities, with specific inferences depending on the context (e.g., work vs. fun). Overall, the relationship between self-control and self-expression is more nuanced than earlier research suggested, and several open questions await further investigation.

The fable of state self-control.

Trait self-control is highly valued, often equated with moral righteousness and associated with numerous positive life outcomes. This paper challenges the conventional conflation of trait self-control and state self-control. We suggest that while trait self-control is consistently linked to success, state self-control is not the causal mechanism driving these benefits. Trait self-control, sometimes also referred to as conscientiousness, grit, and the ability to delay gratification, predicts better health, wealth, and academic achievement. Conventional wisdom has it that people high in trait self-control reap all these benefits because they engage in more state self-control, defined as the momentary act of resolving conflict between goals and fleeting desires. Despite its intuitive appeal, there are problems with extolling state self-control because of our love for trait self-control. First, empirical evidence suggests that individuals high in trait self-control do not engage in more state self-control but engage it less. Second, changes to state self-control do not reliably and sustainably improve people's outcomes, as least in the long-term. And third, despite the possibility of dramatic improvements in trait self-control, these improvements are often short lived, with people returning to their baseline trait level over longer time horizons. The roots of this problem are numerous: Imprecise and inaccurate naming of our constructs that lead to construct drift and contamination; ignoring the numerous other facets of conscientiousness like orderliness or industriousness; and not appreciating that traits are sometimes not reducible to states. We suggest that the celebrated benefits of trait self-control arise from mechanisms beyond state self-control and highlight the need for a broader conceptualization of self-control in psychological research and practical interventions.

Trait self-control: A Process Model perspective.

What do self-controlled individuals do that distinguishes them from those who are more impulsive? That is, why are some people better able to align their behavior with personal long-term goals despite alternatives that would be more immediately gratifying? To address this question, we use the Process Model of Self-Control [1], which posits that all impulses are generated via a four-stage, recursive process and can be regulated by intentionally intervening at any of these stages. We suggest that this framework illuminates not only individual states of self-control, but also the diverse ways that stable individual differences in self-control can come about.

Motivational dynamics of self-control.

How people respond to desires varies substantially across time and situations. Building on recent theoretical developments, we propose that motivation plays a central role in the dynamics of self-control as it unfolds across time. We illustrate the role of motivation in self-control by highlighting evidence that pursuing goals for intrinsic (vs. extrinsic) reasons plays a key role in shaping when and how people engage in self-control in service to their goals. We then expand this framework by outlining several promising directions for future research, specifically emphasizing the dynamic interplay between motivation and self-control at various stages in the regulation process. Ultimately, we posit that motivation is a key factor in helping people flexibly regulate desires in accordance with situational demands.

Effortless self-control.

Self-control is essential for outcomes in several life domains but is often seen as effortful. We discuss recent research indicating the possibility of effortless self-control. First, we discuss how high levels of self-control are associated with quicker self-control conflict identification and resolution. Second, we describe two pathways that may lead to these associations: (1) How automatization of behaviors plays a role in self-control outcomes. That is, self-control is associated with better, effortless habits. (2) We discuss that self-control conflicts can be anticipated and resolved with strategies that avoid effortful inhibition. Taken together, we aim to demonstrate that there is more to successful self-control than 'simply' working hard to resist your impulses - there may be easier roads to take.

Burnout and Attention Failure in STEM: The Role of Self-Control and the Buffer of Mindfulness.

Drawing on self-regulatory strength models of self-control, this research examined the relationship between burnout and attentional processes for STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) students. Using data from participants in STEM, burnout was found to be associated with higher levels of off-task thinking, also known as mind-wandering. Further, self-control acted as a mediator in the relationship between burnout and mind-wandering such that higher levels of burnout predicted poor self-control that subsequently increased the mind's tendency to wander. Additionally, mindfulness buffered the relationship between burnout and mind-wandering such that burnout had the most detrimental impact on attention for those students who were low in mindfulness. Using the Johnson-Neyman approach, results reveal the upper limits for the moderating impact of mindfulness. Results and implications for science and practice are discussed with a special grounding for students in the STEM context.

Metacognitive knowledge about self-control.

Good self-control is highly valuable, but the processes that promote it are not fully understood. This review emphasizes that self-control is "inherently metacognitive" (p. 204, Duckworth et al., 2014) and describes the potential benefits of metacognitive knowledge for self-control. In line with research on metacognition in academic goal pursuit, we elaborate how three distinct types of metacognitive knowledge may aid self-control: strategy knowledge (for example, a repertoire of self-regulatory strategies), task knowledge (for example, understanding self-control demands), and person knowledge (for example, awareness of one's self-control strengths and weaknesses). Additionally, we identify research gaps and suggest that future studies should investigate the development and updating of metacognitive knowledge about self-control and how metacognitive knowledge can prevent individuals from justifying indulgence.

An integrative framework of conflict and control.

People regularly encounter various types of conflict. Here, we ask if, and, if so, how, different types of conflict, from lab-based Stroop conflicts to everyday-life self-control or moral conflicts, are related to one other. We present a framework that assumes that action-goal representations are hierarchically organized, ranging from concrete actions to abstract goals. The framework's key assumption is that conflicts involving more abstract goals (e.g., self-control/moral conflict) are embedded in a more complex action space; thus, to resolve such conflicts, people need to consider more associated goals and actions. We discuss how differences in complexity impact conflict resolution mechanisms and the costs/benefits of resolving conflicts. Altogether, we offer a new way to conceptualize and analyze conflict regulation across different domains.

Enhancing self-regulation and learner engagement in L2 speaking: exploring the potential of intelligent personal assistants within a learning-oriented feedback framework.

INTRODUCTION: Developing L2 speaking proficiency can be challenging for learners, particularly when it comes to fostering self-regulation and maintaining engagement. Intelligent Personal Assistants (IPAs) offer a potential solution by providing accessible, interactive language learning opportunities. METHODS: This mixed-methods study investigated the effectiveness of using Google Assistant within a learning-oriented feedback (LOA) framework to enhance L2 speaking proficiency, self-regulation, and learner engagement among 54 university-level EFL learners in China. Convenience sampling assigned participants to either an experimental group (n = 27) using Google Assistant with tailored activities or a control group (n = 27) using traditional methods. The Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI) assessed speaking performance. Self-reported questionnaires measured L2 motivation and the Scale of Strategic Self-Regulation for Speaking English as a Foreign Language (S2RS-EFL) evaluated speaking self-regulation. Additionally, semi-structured interviews with a subsample of the experimental group provided qualitative insights. RESULTS: The Google Assistant group demonstrated a statistically significant improvement in speaking performance compared to the control group. While no significant difference in motivation was found, thematic analysis of interviews revealed perceived benefits of Google Assistant, including increased accessibility, interactivity, and immediate pronunciation feedback. These features likely contributed to a more engaging learning experience, potentially fostering self-regulation development in line with the core principles of LOA. CONCLUSION: This study suggests Google Assistant as a promising supplementary tool for enhancing L2 speaking proficiency, learner autonomy, and potentially self-regulation within an LOA framework. Further research is needed to explore its impact on motivation and optimize engagement strategies.

Self-control and bed procrastination as mediators between mindfulness and sleep quality among college students during the COVID-19 pandemic.

In recent years, sleep problems among college students have become increasingly prominent, especially in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, and their sleep quality has deteriorated dramatically, severely affecting their physical and mental health. Numerous research studies have investigated the relationship between mindfulness and sleep quality; however, it is still unclear what psychological process underlies this relationship. In the current study, college students' bed procrastination and self-control as mediating factors in the association between mindfulness and sleep quality were investigated. Using the convenience sampling method, 763 Chinese college students (mean age = 19.48 years, SD = 2.06) were recruited to complete self-reported questionnaires that included the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, Self-Control Scale, Bed Procrastination Scale, and Sleep Quality Scale. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS 23.0 software. Results showed that (a) mindfulness was positively associated with sleep quality; (b) both self-control and bed procrastination mediated the relationship between mindfulness and sleep quality, and (c) self-control and bed procrastination sequentially mediated the relationship between mindfulness and sleep quality. These findings collectively suggest a potential mechanism for how mindfulness influences sleep quality, providing a therapeutic target for mindfulness-based interventions aimed at helping college students improve sleep quality.