PTEN/AKT/mTOR pathway involvement in autophagy, mediated by miR-99a-3p and energy metabolism in ammonia-exposed chicken bursal lymphocytes.

Emission of atmospheric ammonia (NH3) is an environmental challenge because of its harmful effects on humans and animals including birds. Among all organisms, NH3 is highly sensitive to birds. Autophagy plays a critical role in Bursa of fabricius (BF)-mediated immune responses against various hazardous substances. Therefore, we designed our work to demonstrate whether NH3 can induce autophagy in broiler chicken BF. In this study, the downregulated levels of mammalian target of rapamycin and light chain-3 (LC-Ⅰ), as well as the upregulated levels of phosphate and tensin homology (PTEN), protein kinase B (AKT), autophagy related-5, light chain-3 (LC3-Ⅱ), Becline-1, and Dynein, were found. Our results of transmission electron microscopy displayed signs of autophagosomes/autophagic lysosomes, and immunofluorescence assay displayed that NH3 exposure reduced the relative amount of CD8+ B-lymphocyte in chicken BF. Exposure of NH3 led to energy metabolism disturbance by decreasing mRNA levels of glucose metabolism factors aconitase-2, hexokinase-1, hexokinase-2, lactate dehydrogenase-A, lactate dehydrogenase-B, pyruvate kinase, phosphofructokinase and succinate dehydrogenase complex unit-B, and adenosine triphosphates (ATPase) activities (Na+/K+ ATPase, Ca2+ ATPase, Mg2+ ATPase, and Ca/Mg2+ ATPase). Moreover, phosphate and tensin homology was found as target gene of microRNA-99a-3p which confirmed that high concentration of NH3 caused autophagy in chicken BF. In summary, these findings suggested that ammonia induced autophagy via miR-99a-3p, the reduction of ATPase activity, and the alteration of autophagy-related factors, and energy metabolism mediation in BF. Our findings provide information to assess the harmful effects of NH3 on chicken and clues for human health pathophysiology.

Baicalin attenuated Mycoplasma gallisepticum-induced immune impairment in chicken bursa of fabricius through modulation of autophagy and inhibited inflammation and apoptosis.

BACKGROUND: Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG) is the primary etiologic agent of chronic respiratory disease in poultry. However, the mechanism underlying MG-induced immune dysregulation in chicken is still elusive. Baicalin shows excellent anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic and anti-viral properties. In the present study, the preventive effects of baicalin against immune impairment in chicken bursa of fabricius (BF) were studied in an MG infection model. RESULTS: Histopathological examination showed increased inflammatory cell infiltrations and fragmented nuclei in the model group. Ultrastructural analysis revealed the phenomenon of apoptosis in bursal cells, along with the deformation of mitochondrial membrane and swollen mitochondria in the model group. However, these abnormal morphological changes were partially alleviated by baicalin. Meanwhile, baicalin treatment attenuated the level of proinflammatory cytokines, and suppressed nuclear factor-kappa B expression at both protein and mRNA level. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick endlabeling assay showed extensive apoptosis in BF in the model group. The mRNA and protein expression levels of apoptosis-related genes were upregulated in BF, while baicalin treatment significantly alleviated apoptosis in BF. In addition, alterations in mRNA and protein expression levels of autophagy-related genes and mitochondrial dynamics proteins were significantly alleviated by baicalin. Moreover, baicalin treatment significantly attenuated MG-induced decrease in CD8+ cells and reduced bacterial load in chicken BF compared to the model group. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggested that baicalin could effectively inhibit MG-induced immune impairment and alleviate inflammatory responses and apoptosis in chicken BF. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH) and Somatostatin (SST), but not Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone (GHRH) nor Ghrelin (GHRL), Regulate Expression and Release of Immune Growth Hormone (GH) from Chicken Bursal B-Lymphocyte Cultures.

It is known that growth hormone (GH) is expressed in immune cells, where it exerts immunomodulatory effects. However, the mechanisms of expression and release of GH in the immune system remain unclear. We analyzed the effect of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), ghrelin (GHRL), and somatostatin (SST) upon GH mRNA expression, intracellular and released GH, Ser133-phosphorylation of CREB (pCREBS133), intracellular Ca2+ levels, as well as B-cell activating factor (BAFF) mRNA expression in bursal B-lymphocytes (BBLs) cell cultures since several GH secretagogues, as well as their corresponding receptors (-R), are expressed in B-lymphocytes of several species. The expression of TRH/TRH-R, ghrelin/GHS-R1a, and SST/SST-Rs (Subtypes 1 to 5) was observed in BBLs by RT-PCR and immunocytochemistry (ICC), whereas GHRH/GHRH-R were absent in these cells. We found that TRH treatment significantly increased local GH mRNA expression and CREB phosphorylation. Conversely, SST decreased GH mRNA expression. Additionally, when added together, SST prevented TRH-induced GH mRNA expression, but no changes were observed in pCREBS133 levels. Furthermore, TRH stimulated GH release to the culture media, while SST increased the intracellular content of this hormone. Interestingly, SST inhibited TRH-induced GH release in a dose-dependent manner. The coaddition of TRH and SST decreased the intracellular content of GH. After 10 min. of incubation with either TRH or SST, the intracellular calcium levels significantly decreased, but they were increased at 60 min. However, the combined treatment with both peptides maintained the Ca2+ levels reduced up to 60-min. of incubation. On the other hand, BAFF cytokine mRNA expression was significantly increased by TRH administration. Altogether, our results suggest that TRH and SST are implicated in the regulation of GH expression and release in BBL cultures, which also involve changes in pCREBS133 and intracellular Ca2+ concentration. It is likely that TRH, SST, and GH exert autocrine/paracrine immunomodulatory actions and participate in the maturation of chicken BBLs.

The morphological basis of the development of the chick embryo immune system.

The chick immune system is a fundamental model in basic immunology. In birds, the bone marrow derived pluripotent stem cells after entering the circulation, migrate to bursa of Fabricius to benefit from a microenvironment which supports the differentiation and maturation of B lymphocytes by the help of its resident cells and tissues. Delivering sufficient functional B cells is required to maintain their peripheral population and normal peripheral humoral responses. Additionally, bursa acts as an active site for the generation of antibody diversity through gene conversion. Being consisted of 98% B lymphocytes, the organ is occupied by other cell types including T cells, macrophages, eosinophils and mast cells. Thymus, which is an epithelial organ is the main site of T cell development where positive and negative selections contribute to the development of functional and not autoreactive T cell repertoire. Bursectomy and thymectomy are surgical exercises through which the involvement of cells of specific immunity including B cells and T cells can be determined.

Changes in bursal B cells in chicken during embryonic development and early life after hatching.

The bursa of Fabricius, the primary lymphoid organ for B cell development found only in birds, offers novel approaches to study B cell differentiation at various developmental stages. Here, we explored the changes and mechanism involved in the developmental stages of bursal B cells. The bursal B cells rapidly increased in the late embryonic stage and around hatching, which coincided with changes in specific cell surface markers. Moreover, the cells in the bursa were divided by size into small (low forward- and side-scatter) or large (high forward- and side-scatter) via flow cytometry. It is intriguing that the proportion of small and large B cells was reversed during this period. Because little is known about this phenomenon, we hypothesized that size-based B cell population could be used as an indicator to distinguish their status and stage during B cell development in chicken. The results demonstrated that large B cells are actively proliferating cells than small B cells. Additionally, large B cells showed higher mRNA expression of both proliferation- and differentiation-associated genes compared to small B cells. Taken together, these data show that large bursal B cells are the main source of proliferation and differentiation during B cell development in chickens.

An Ex Vivo Chicken Primary Bursal-cell Culture Model to Study Infectious Bursal Disease Virus Pathogenesis.

Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) is a birnavirus of economic importance to the poultry industry. The virus infects B cells, causing morbidity, mortality, and immunosuppression in infected birds. In this study, we describe the isolation of chicken primary bursal cells from the bursa of Fabricius, the culture and infection of the cells with IBDV, and the quantification of viral replication. The addition of chicken CD40 ligand significantly increased cell proliferation fourfold over six days of culture and significantly enhanced cell viability. Two strains of IBDV, a cell-culture adapted strain, D78, and a very virulent strain, UK661, replicated well in the ex vivo cell cultures. This model will be of use in determining how cells respond to IBDV infection and will permit a reduction in the number of infected birds used in IBDV pathogenesis studies. The model can also be expanded to include other viruses and could be applied to different species of birds.

Pro-apoptosis effects of protocatechuic acid in the early stage of infectious bursal disease virus infection.

Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) is a very important small RNA virus in the family of Birnaviridae, which can cause severe immunosuppressive effects and pathological damages in young chickens. It can replicate in bursal lymphocytes and impede the growth and development of B cells, finally causing bursal lymphocytes apoptosis. Previous results have shown that protocatechuic acid (PCA) as an important phenolic compound could effectively improve the survival rate of chickens infected with IBDV. The current study aimed to explore how PCA influenced the pathogenesis of IBDV, especially lymphocyte apoptosis in the process of IBDV infection. The results showed that PCA could effectively alleviate bursal pathological changes at the early stage of IBDV invasion. Moreover, bursal lymphocyte apoptosis for tissue section samples was largely elevated by PCA by using the terminal dexynucleotidyl transferase (TdT)-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) method while the bursal lymphocyte apoptosis ratio was also increased by PCA by flow cytometry in the early stage of IBDV infection in vivo. Meanwhile, PCA could promote non-lymphocyte apoptosis in vitro. Further study displayed that the potential mechanisms mainly relied on regulation of the expressions of pro-apoptotic protein Bax and anti-apoptotic Bcl-2, thus speeding up the process of IBDV-infected cell apoptosis and preventing virus infection. Meanwhile, the results displayed that the PI3K/Akt and NF kappa B signal pathways might play an important role in promoting cell apoptosis after IBDV infection. Overall, PCA as a potent antiviral drug precursor is expected to be applied in the poultry industry as a substitute for clinical antiviral application.

Transcriptome reveals B lymphocyte apoptosis in duck embryonic bursa of Fabricius mediated by mitochondrial and Fas signaling pathways.

As a central immune organ unique to birds, the bursa of Fabricius (BF) provides a proper microenvironment for B-cell development. The bursal B-cells undergo rapid proliferation and differentiation at the embryonic stages, but 95% of them undergo apoptosis after hatching. Few studies have focused on the cause of bursal B-cells apoptosis at the embryonic stages in birds. To explore the cause, we compared the transcriptional profiles of three characteristic embryonic stages in duck, including embryonic day 14 (ED14), 22 (ED22) and 1 day after hatching (D1). Our results showed that the apoptotic B-cells were first observed at ED22 while there were no apoptotic B-cells at ED14. By performing enrichment analysis for DEGs and qRT-PCR, our results demonstrated that both mitochondrial and Fas signaling pathways mediated bursal B-cell apoptosis during the duck embryonic development. Further, protein-protein interactions (PPIs) and KEGG enrichment analysis together showed that BMP4, FoxO1 and IGF-1 may regulate bursal B-cells apoptosis. In addition, the DEGs showed two stage-specific expression patterns. By analyzing the genes of two expression patterns, the results indicated that B-cell false differentiation may be one of the reasons of apoptosis in the duck embryonic BF. Overall, these data demonstrated that from ED14-ED22, apoptosis of bursal B-cells was mediated by mitochondrial and Fas signaling pathways and could be regulated by BMP4, FoxO1 and IGF-1 in duck. One of the primary causes of bursal B-cell apoptosis may be false differentiation in B-cells.

Salmonella infection may alter the expression of toll like receptor 4 and immune related cells in chicken bursa of Fabricius.

Toll like receptor 4 (TLR4), eosinophils and mast cells play significant role in host immunity during several pathogenic infections. However in vivo tissue expression of TLR4 and distribution pattern of eosinophils and mast cells in chicken bursa of Fabricius (BF) during Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (STm) infection is poorly studied. Therefore, herein, following immunostaining, we found localization of TLR4 in follicular cortex and medulla and its expression was statistical increased after 36 h and 72 h of STm stimulation. Chromotrope 2R staining revealed that eosinophils were mostly distributed in follicular cortex, inter-follicular spaces and in or around blood vessels and their number in BF were statistical increased after 72 h of STm stimulation. The presence of eosinophils was confirmed using immunostaining with anti-rabbit eosinophil cationic protein antibody. Toluidine blue stained mast cells were mostly distributed in connective tissues between inter-follicular spaces while some were also present in follicular cortex of BF. However, STm stimulation illustrated non-significant effect on the number of mast cells or their de-granulation, instead their number were gradually decreased in BF with advancement in age of chickens. Hence, this study provided novel information about in vivo tissue distribution of TLR4, eosinophils and mast cells in BF during STm infection.

The Protective Role of Selenium in AFB1-Induced Tissue Damage and Cell Cycle Arrest in Chicken's Bursa of Fabricius.

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a naturally occurring secondary metabolites of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, and is the most toxic form of aflatoxins. Selenium (Se) with antioxidant and detoxification functions is one of the essential trace elements for human beings and animals. This study aims to evaluate the protective effects of Se on AFB1-induced tissue damage and cell cycle arrest in bursa of Fabricius (BF) of chickens. The results showed that a dietary supplement of 0.4 mg·kg-1 Se alleviated the histological lesions induced by AFB1, as demonstrated by decreasing vacuoles and nuclear debris, and relieving oxidative stress. Furthermore, flow cytometry studies showed that a Se supplement protected AFB1-induced G2M phase arrest at 7 days and G0G1 phase arrest at 14 and 21 days. Moreover, the mRNA expression results of ATM, Chk2, p53, p21, cdc25, PCNA, cyclin D1, cyclin E1, cyclin B3, CDK6, CDK2, and cdc2 indicated that Se supplement could restore these parameters to be close to those in the control group. It is concluded that a dietary supplement of 0.4 mg kg-1 Se could diminish AFB1-induced immune toxicity in chicken's BF by alleviating oxidative damage and cell cycle arrest through an ATM-Chk2-cdc25 route and the ATM-Chk2-p21 pathway.

Propagation and titration of infectious bursal disease virus, including non-cell-culture-adapted strains, using ex vivo-stimulated chicken bursal cells.

Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) is a Birnaviridae family member of economic importance for poultry. This virus infects and destroys developing B lymphocytes in the cloacal bursa, resulting in a potentially fatal or immunosuppressive disease in chickens. Naturally occurring viruses and many vaccine strains are not able to grow in in vitro systems without prior adaptation, which often affects viral properties such as virulence. Primary bursal cells, which are the main target cells of lymphotropic IBDV in vivo, may represent an attractive system for the study of IBDV. Unfortunately, bursal cells isolated from bursal follicles undergo apoptosis within hours following their isolation. Here, we demonstrate that ex vivo stimulation of bursal cells with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate maintains their viability long enough to allow IBDV replication to high titres. A wide range of field-derived or vaccine serotype 1 IBDV strains could be titrated in these phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate -stimulated bursal cells and furthermore were permissive for replication of non-cell-culture-adapted viruses. These cells also supported multistep replication experiments and flow cytometry analysis of infection. Ex vivo-stimulated bursal cells therefore offer a promising tool in the study of IBDV.

Transcriptome analyses of differential gene expression in the bursa of Fabricius between Silky Fowl and White Leghorn.

Hyperpigmentation in Silky Fowl (SF) results in aberrant immune cell development. However, how melanocytes regulate B-cell proliferation in the bursa of Fabricius (BF) is unclear. To resolve this conundrum, we collected BFs from three-week-old SF and White Leghorn (WL) female chickens for RNA sequencing. The BF development was relatively weaker in SF than in WL. The transcriptome analyses identified 4848 differentially expressed genes, 326 long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), and 67 microRNAs in the BF of SF. The genes associated with melanogenesis was significantly higher, but that of the genes associated with the cytokine-cytokine receptor interactions and JAK-STAT signalling pathway was significantly lower in SF than in WL. Crucial biological processes, such as the receptor activity, cell communication, and cellular responses to stimuli, were clustered in SF. The predicted target lncRNAs genes were mainly associated with cell proliferation pathways such as JAK-STAT, WNT, MAPK, and Notch signalling pathways. Except for the above pathways, the target microRNA genes were related to the metabolism, melanogenesis, autophagy, and NOD-like and Toll-like receptor signalling pathways. The lncRNAs and microRNAs were predicted to regulate the JAK2, STAT3, and IL-15 genes. Thus, B-cell development in the BF of SF might be regulated and affected by noncoding RNAs.

Ontogeny of ramified CD45 cells in chicken embryo and their contribution to bursal secretory dendritic cells.

Embryonic tissues contain highly ramified stellate-shaped cells expressing CD45 and MHC II antigens but their origin and immunophenotype are unknown. Using staged avian embryos and cell-type-specific antibodies, we establish a detailed spatiotemporal ontogeny of cells that express CD45, the earliest marker of hematopoietic stem cells in the chick. CD45 immunostaining marks three distinct embryonic cell populations: round, ramified and amoeboid cells. The round and ramified CD45+ cells appear first in yolk-sac blood islands before the onset of circulation. A subpopulation of round cells co-expresses the thrombocyte-specific CD51/CD61 antigen. Amoeboid cells express macrophage-specific antigens and frequently occur in regions of apoptosis. Ramified cells are distributed uniformly in the embryonic mesenchyme, colonize lymphoid and non-lymphoid organs and later express MHC II. To study the origin of CD45+ cells, 2-day-old chick embryos were ablated from the yolk sac before the establishment of circulation and incubated for 2-5 days. Large numbers of CD45+MHC II+ ramified cells differentiated in the yolk sac. Yolk-sac chimeras were generated by grafting embryos into GFP-expressing de-embryonated yolk sacs. GFP/CD45 co-expressing ramified and amoeboid cells colonized all organ primordia in the donor embryo. We also recombined GFP+ yolk sac with the bursa of Fabricius and found ramified GFP+CD45+ cells in the bursa where they differentiated into dendritic cells. Thus, CD45 cells are first present in the yolk sac during primitive hematopoiesis and then migrate from the extra-embryonic yolk sac to give rise to cells throughout all organ primordia, including dendritic cells in the bursa of Fabricius.

Quantification of FITC-labelled probiotic Lactobacillus salivarius DSPV 001P during gastrointestinal transit in broilers.

The knowledge related to the fate of probiotics in the complex environment of the intestinal microbiota in broilers is just beginning to be elucidated; however, it is not yet well understood. A good method to investigate the mechanisms by which probiotics mediate their effects is to mark probiotic bacteria and trace them. The aim of this research was to develop a new method to estimate in vivo fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-labelled Lactobacillus salivarius DSPV 001P counts during passage through the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of broilers. Forty-five, 1 d old Cobb broilers were used in this trial. Programmed necropsies were performed 30 min, 6 h, and 12 h after the administration of the probiotic bacterium, and samples of liver, crop, duodenum, caecum, and bursa of fabricius were collected. To determine the spatial and temporal transit of L. salivarius DSPV 001P in broilers, the number of bacteria as well as its respective fluorescent signal produced by FITC were measured. In order to observe the relationship between the variables, a logistic regression analysis was applied. The amount of fluorescence could be used as an indicator of fluorescent probiotic bacteria in the crop and duodenum 30 min after probiotic bacterium supplementation. In addition, the fluorescent signal could be used to estimate bacterial counts in caecum 6 and 12 h after L. salivarius DSPV 001P administration. To the best of our knowledge, this research is the first in vivo trial to employ the bacterial FITC-labelling technique in order to enumerate probiotic bacteria during gastrointestinal transit in broilers.

Avian dendritic cells: Phenotype and ontogeny in lymphoid organs.

Dendritic cells (DC) are critically important accessory cells in the innate and adaptive immune systems. Avian DCs were originally identified in primary and secondary lymphoid organs by their typical morphology, displaying long cell processes with cytoplasmic granules. Several subtypes are known. Bursal secretory dendritic cells (BSDC) are elongated cells which express vimentin intermediate filaments, MHC II molecules, macrophage colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R), and produce 74.3+ secretory granules. Avian follicular dendritic cells (FDC) highly resemble BSDC, express the CD83, 74.3 and CSF1R molecules, and present antigen in germinal centers. Thymic dendritic cells (TDC), which express 74.3 and CD83, are concentrated in thymic medulla while interdigitating DC are found in T cell-rich areas of secondary lymphoid organs. Avian Langerhans cells are a specialized 74.3-/MHC II+ cell population found in stratified squamous epithelium and are capable of differentiating into 74.3+ migratory DCs. During organogenesis hematopoietic precursors of DC colonize the developing lymphoid organ primordia prior to immigration of lymphoid precursor cells. This review summarizes our current understanding of the ontogeny, cytoarchitecture, and immunophenotype of avian DC, and offers an antibody panel for the in vitro and in vivo identification of these heterogeneous cell types.

Direct antiapoptotic effects of growth hormone are mediated by PI3K/Akt pathway in the chicken bursa of Fabricius.

Growth hormone (GH) is expressed in several extra-pituitary tissues, including the primary and secondary lymphoid organs of the immune system. In birds, GH mRNA and protein expression show a specific developmental distribution pattern in the bursa of Fabricius (BF), particularly in epithelial and B cells. Changes in the bursal concentration and distribution of locally produced GH during ontogeny suggest it is involved in B cell differentiation and maturation, as well as in a functional survival role in this organ, which may be mediated by paracrine/autocrine mechanisms. Here, we analyzed the anti-apoptotic effect of GH in BF and the intracellular signaling pathways involved in this activity. Also, we studied if this effect was exerted directly by GH or mediated indirectly by IGF-I. Bursal cell cultures showed an important loss of their viability after 4h of incubation and a significant increase in apoptosis. However, treatment with 10nM GH or 40 nM IGF-I significantly increased B cell viability (16.7 ± 0.67% and 13.4 ± 1.12%, respectively) when compared with the untreated controls. In addition, the presence of apoptotic bodies (TUNEL) dramatically decreased (5.5-fold) after GH and IGF-I treatments, whereas co-incubation with anti-GH or anti-IGF-I, respectively, blocked their anti-apoptotic effect. Likewise, both GH and IGF-I significantly inhibited caspase-3 activity (by 40 ± 2.0%) in these cultures. However, the use of anti-IGF-I could not reverse the GH anti-apoptotic effects, thus indicating that these were exerted directly. The addition of 100 nM wortmannin (a PI3K/Akt inhibitor) blocked the GH protective effects. Also, GH stimulated (3-fold) the phosphorylation of Akt in bursal cells, and adding wortmannin or an anti-GH antibody inhibited this effect. Furthermore, GH was capable to stimulate (7-fold) the expression of Bcl-2. Taken together, these results indicate that the direct anti-apoptotic activity of GH observed in the chicken bursal B cell cultures might be mediated through the PI3K/Akt pathway.

Origin of IgM(+)IgG(+) lymphocytes in the bursa of Fabricius.

IgM(+)IgG(+) B cells were detected, by immunofluorescence staining of single cells, in the bursa of Fabricius after hatching. To study the role of maternal IgG (MIgG) in this emergence of IgM(+)IgG(+) B cells, MIgG-free chicks were established from surgically bursectomized hens. Deprivation of MIgG in chicks completely prevented the appearance of IgM(+)IgG(+) B cells in the bursa 1 week after hatching. However, introduction of fluorescein-isothiocyanate-labeled MIgG to MIgG-free chick embryos on day 18 of incubation retrieved IgM(+)IgG(+) B cells in the bursa 1 week after hatching. Thus, IgM(+)IgG(+) B cells are induced by the binding of MIgG to IgM(+) B cells in the bursa after hatching. Nevertheless, no binding of MIgG to IgM(+) B cells was observed in the bursa of chick embryos in which B-cell proliferation and differentiation were independent of external antigens (Ags). Additionally, the binding of MIgG to IgM(+) B cells after hatching was prevented by the isolation of the bursa from environmental stimuli by bursal duct ligation. Therefore, Ag stimulation from the external environment to the bursa is indispensable for the binding of MIgG to IgM(+) B cells in the bursa. Taken together, the data demonstrate that IgM(+)IgG(+) B cells are generated by Ag-dependent binding of MIgG to IgM(+) B cells in the bursa after hatching.

Expression profiles of antiviral response genes in chicken bursal cells stimulated with Toll-like receptor ligands.

Cells of the adaptive immune system express Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and are able to respond to TLR ligands. With this in mind, the goal of the current study was to determine the expression of antiviral response genes in the cells of the chicken bursa of Fabricius (BF) to stimulation with TLR ligands. We investigated initially the response of bursal B cells to CpG-ODN, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and poly(I:C) treatment. The expression level of type I interferons (IFNs) and interferon regulatory factor 7 (IRF7) did not differ between CpG-ODN and LPS treated groups compared to the non-stimulated cells. Poly(I:C) was the only TLR ligand, which has induced significant expression of antiviral innate immune response genes from bursal cells. Further in vitro and in vivo studies need to examine the efficacy of these antiviral responses against avian viruses.

Apoptosis occurs during early development of the bursa of Fabricius in chicken embryos.

The bursa of Fabricius (BF) is a unique primary lymphoid organ, and among vertebrates is unique to birds. Despite its importance to the immune systems of various avian species, little is known of the molecular mechanisms underlying early BF development. In the present study, we demonstrated that apoptosis occurs during early development of the bursa of Fabricius in chicken embryos. Initial histological analyses of BF morphogenesis in chicken embryos led to the hypothesis that formation of the bursal lumen correlates with fusion of vacuoles, which appear in the cloacal epithelial bud. Using terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase deoxyuridine triphosphate (dUTP) nick-end labeling (TUNEL) analysis and immunostaining with an anti-cleaved (activated) caspase-3 antibody, we detected multiple apoptotic cells around these vacuoles. In further experiments, treatments with a caspase inhibitor caused abnormal bursal lumen in vivo. The present data indicate that apoptosis may play important roles in BF morphogenesis in chickens.

New insight into the origin of IgG-bearing cells in the bursa of Fabricius.

The bursa of Fabricius is a primary lymphoid organ for B-cell development and gut-associated lymphoid tissue. After hatching, IgG-containing cells with reticular branches are found in the medulla of bursal follicles on frozen sections stained with anti-Cγ antibody, and IgM(+)IgG(+) B cells are detected in single-cell suspension of the bursa. IgG-containing cells in the medulla do not biosynthesize IgG and are composed of aggregated maternal IgG and environmental antigens. Then, those cells in the medulla are acknowledged as follicular dendritic cells retaining immune complexes. Also, it is presumed that IgM(+)IgG(+) B cells are generated by the attachment of immune complexes to IgM(+) bursal B cells because IgM(+)IgG(+) B cells are induced by antigen-dependent attachment of maternal IgG. Therefore, it is reasonable to suppose that immune complexes exert further B-cell differentiation in the medulla.