Connaraceae: An updated overview of research and the pharmacological potential of 39 species.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: An interdisciplinary scientific investigation of biologically active agents is fundamental to search for natural substances with therapeutic action. This review collected the most relevant information on traditional knowledge related to the use of plants of the Connaraceae family. This work is the first to compile all the published ethnobotanical, chemical, pharmacological, and toxicological information about this important plant family. AIM OF THE STUDY: Our objective was to provide the scientific community with an up-to-date overview of the pharmacological potential of Connaraceae species. MATERIAL AND METHODS: We searched NCBI Pubmed Central, Google Scholar, Scientific Electronic Library Online (SciELO), ScienceDirect, SciFinder, and Scopus databases to review the research on ethnobotanical, chemical, pharmacognostical, pharmacological, and toxicological studies with Connaraceaes. Books that address the theme were also included. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: The literature review indicated that 39 species of Connaraceaes have pharmacological potentiality. Ethnobotany reports listed 36 of the 39 species discussed. Pharmacognostical studies have been conducted with 23 species and isolates, and chemical compounds have been identified for only 15 species. At least one study has been published concerning the pharmacological activities for 20 of the 39 species analyzed. For Agelaea pentagyna, Cnestis ferruginea, Connars suberosus, and Rourea minor, pharmacological activity experiments were performed using isolated compounds, which have the highest current pharmacological potential. Studies employing a toxicological approach cover only 10 of the 39 Connaraceaes species. Thus, scientific community should conduct much more research for a broader understanding of this plant family.

A liana from the lower Miocene of Panama and the fossil record of Connaraceae.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Permineralized wood is common in the Miocene beds exposed during the expansion of the Panama Canal. We describe a stem with the distinctive anatomy of a liana and evaluate the evolutionary, biogeographic, and ecological significance of this discovery. METHODS: The object of the study was obtained from a collection of fossil woods and fruits from a locality in the lower Miocene Cucaracha Formation, where the formation is exposed by the Culebra Cut of the Panama Canal. Thin sections were prepared using the cellulose acetate peel technique and examined using transmitted light microscopy. We described the anatomy and compared it with that of extant and fossil species. We also reviewed and evaluated published reports of fossils attributed to Connaraceae. KEY RESULTS: The anatomy of this fossil wood matches the genus Rourea (Connaraceae). The stem is only 1 cm in diameter, but vessels >200 µm in diameter also occur, indicating the perennial climbing habit. We evaluated 12 other pre-Quaternary occurrences attributed to Connaraceae. Four are accepted, three are rejected, and we consider five unknown or uncertain. CONCLUSIONS: The discovery of this Rourea stem confirms the presence of Connaraceae in the Neotropics by the early Miocene, provides the oldest evidence of the climbing habit in the family, and contributes to our understanding of the flora of Panama 19 mya. Although the fossil record of Connaraceae is sparse, reliable occurrences span three continents and indicate that the family originated as early as the Late Cretaceous-Paleocene and was widespread by the early Miocene.

Glandular trichomes in Connarus suberosus (Connaraceae): distribution, structural organization and probable functions.

Connarus suberosus is a typical species of the Brazilian Cerrado biome, and its inflorescences and young vegetative branches are densely covered by dendritic trichomes. The objective of this study was to report the occurrence of a previously undescribed glandular trichome of this species. The localization, origin and structure of these trichomes were investigated under light, transmission and scanning electron microscopy. Collections were made throughout the year, from five adult specimens of Connarus suberosus near Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil, including vegetative and reproductive apices, leaves and fruits in different developmental stages, as well as floral buds and flowers at anthesis. Glandular trichomes (GTs) occurred on vegetative and reproductive organs during their juvenile stages. The GTs consisted of a uniseriate, multicellular peduncle, whose cells contain phenolic compounds, as well as a multicellular glandular portion that accumulates lipids. The glandular cell has thin wall, dense cytoplasm (with many mitochondria, plastids and dictyosomes), and a large nucleus with a visible nucleolus. The starch present in the plastids was hydrolyzed during the synthesis phase, reducing the density of the plastid stroma. Some plastids were fused to vacuoles, and some evidence suggested the conversion of plastids into vacuoles. During the final activity stages of the GTs, a darkening of the protoplasm was observed in some of the glandular cells, as a programmed cell death; afterwards, became caducous. The GTs in C. suberosus had a temporal restriction, being limited to the juvenile phase of the organs. Their presence on the exposed surfaces of developing organs and the chemical nature of the reserve products, suggest that these structures are food bodies. Field observations and detailed studies of plant-environment interactions, as well as chemical analysis of the reserve compounds, are still necessary to confirm the role of these GTs as feeding rewards.

Glandular trichomes in Connarus suberosus (Connaraceae): distribution, structural organization and probable functions

Connarus suberosus is a typical species of the Brazilian Cerrado biome, and its inflorescences and young vegetative branches are densely covered by dendritic trichomes. The objective of this study was to report the occurrence of a previously undescribed glandular trichome of this species. The localization, origin and structure of these trichomes were investigated under light, transmission and scanning electron microscopy. Collections were made throughout the year, from five adult specimens of Connarus suberosus near Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil, including vegetative and reproductive apices, leaves and fruits in different developmental stages, as well as floral buds and flowers at anthesis. Glandular trichomes (GTs) occurred on vegetative and reproductive organs during their juvenile stages. The GTs consisted of a uniseriate, multicellular peduncle, whose cells contain phenolic compounds, as well as a multicellular glandular portion that accumulates lipids. The glandular cell has thin wall, dense cytoplasm (with many mitochondria, plastids and dictyosomes), and a large nucleus with a visible nucleolus. The starch present in the plastids was hydrolyzed during the synthesis phase, reducing the density of the plastid stroma. Some plastids were fused to vacuoles, and some evidence suggested the conversion of plastids into vacuoles. During the final activity stages of the GTs, a darkening of the protoplasm was observed in some of the glandular cells, as a programmed cell death; afterwards, became caducous. The GTs in C. suberosus had a temporal restriction, being limited to the juvenile phase of the organs. Their presence on the exposed surfaces of developing organs and the chemical nature of the reserve products, suggest that these structures are food bodies. Field observations and detailed studies of plant-environment interactions, as well as chemical analysis of the reserve compounds, are still necessary to confirm the role of these GTs as feeding rewards.

Connarus suberosus es una especie típica del bioma Cerrado brasileño, y sus inflorescencias junto con los ramos vegetativos jóvenes están densamente cubiertos por tricomas dendríticas. El objetivo de este estudio es presentar la ocurrencia de un tricoma glandular sin descripción previa para esta especie. La localización, origen y estructura de estos tricomas se observó mediante microscopia óptica, así como electrónica de transmisión y de barrido. Los tricomas glandulares (TGs) se producen en los órganos vegetativos y reproductivos, en sus fases jóvenes. Los TGs consisten en un pedúnculo uniseriado y multicelular, cuyas células contienen compuestos fenólicos, así como un sitio en el cual las células glandulares acumulan compuestos pécticos, almidón y lípidos. La acumulación de aceite en el citosol es impresionante, pues ocupa una gran parte del volumen celular. La porción glandular presenta células con paredes delgadas, un denso citoplasma y un núcleo grande con nucleolo visible. El citoplasma contiene gran cantidad de mitocondrias, plástidos y dictiosomas. El almidón presente en los plástidos se hidroliza durante la fase de síntesis, de tal modo que reduce la densidad del estroma plastidial. Algunos plástidos se fusionan con las vacuolas, además hay pruebas de la conversión de los plástidos en vacuolas. Durante las etapas finales de la actividad de los TGs, se observó un oscurecimiento del protoplasma en algunas de las células glandulares lo que sugiere la existencia de la muerte celular programada; después de lo anterior, los TGs se convierten en caducas. Por lo tanto la aparición de TGs en las superficies expuestas de los órganos en desarrollo en C. suberosus y la naturaleza química de los productos de reserva sugieren que estas estructuras son cuerpos alimenticios. Hay evidencias sobre el papel de estos tricomas en las interacciones planta-hormiga, especialmente en el bioma Cerrado.