Young deafblind adults in action: becoming self-determined change agents through advocacy.

Six young deafblind adults took a 1-week course on civic engagement and advocacy, which provided the focus for a participatory action research study with a collective case study design. They selected advocacy topics, were briefed on these policy issues, and were paired with experienced mentors for meetings with legislators in Washington, DC. Eight themes were identified from constant comparative and in vivo analysis of classroom discussion notes, interviews, and journals: (a) defining advocacy and advocate, (b) rights and equality, (c) expectations, (d) role of education in change, (e) deafblind expertise, (f) characteristics of effective change agents, (g) advocacy is teamwork, (h) future advocacy. In the classroom, the participants learned about policy issues, communication considerations, and leadership, then applied this knowledge in the legislative arena. Through the advocacy process, they learned to apply their personal strengths as advocates and experienced the importance of teamwork in advocacy.

States' reading outcomes of students who are d/deaf and hard of hearing.

Historically, researchers have identified that reading outcomes for students in upper grades who are d/Deaf and hard of hearing (d/Dhh) have typically rested around the late 3rd to early 4th grade. In recent years, wide-scale state-level testing has called into question these prognostications. The authors conducted a descriptive, multiunit, embedded-designs case study of 7 states' data from multiyear annual assessments of reading of participants in grades 3, 5, and 8, and in high school. Participants, states' definitions of reading outcomes, and states' reported reading results are described. The authors, who found that many students are reading at levels above the perceived 3rd-to-4th-grade "glass ceiling," build the case for a more hopeful look at reading outcomes for these students than that of the past and recommend approaches for acquiring wide-scale data that will allow professionals in the field to better understand reading outcomes in this population.

Parallel and divergent interpreting in an elementary school classroom.

The study examined the extent to which a highly qualified interpreter remained parallel with or diverged from the original classroom discourse in her interpreting for a 3rd-grade deaf student in science, social studies, and resource room. The interpreter's signed and verbalized expressions were compared to the class participants' expressions for meaning equivalence. Parallel interpreting, occurring 33.2% of the time, closely matched the content of the speaker's message. Divergent interpreting, whereby the interpreter added or dropped elements of meaning, occurred 66.8% of the time. Qualitative analyses of classroom footage as well as interviews with the interpreter and the teachers revealed how, when, and why the interpreter diverged from the message. While the interpreter often made intentional reductions and additions to the discourse to achieve greater student understanding of language and course content, there was little awareness of these changes among individualized educational program team members.

The modes of communication used by children with cochlear implants and the role of sign in their lives.

In a mixed-methods study, which included surveys of 247 parents and 151 teachers, the researchers investigated the modes of communication used by children with cochlear implants and the role of signed communication in the children's lives. Findings indicated that 15%-20% of the children in the parent surveys and approximately 30% of the children in the teacher surveys were using some form of signed communication. Qualitative findings from interviews with parents, teachers, and children with cochlear implants elaborated on the quantitative findings. While the development of spoken-language communication was the main aim of their children's cochlear implantation for the large majority of parents, many valued the use of either Signed English or Australian Sign Language, which they felt supported their children's personal, social, and academic development. Young people who used sign switched comfortably between communication modes according to their communication partners, topics, and settings.

The "wh" questions of visual phonics: what, who, where, when, and why.

Visual Phonics is a reading instructional tool that has been implemented in isolated classrooms for over 20 years. In the past 5 years, several experimental studies demonstrated its efficacy with students who are deaf or hard of hearing. Through a national survey with 200 participants, this study specifically addresses who, where, how, and why a sample of teachers use Visual Phonics in their everyday reading instruction. Through checklists of teaching practice, rating scales, and open-ended questions, teachers self-reported their use of Visual Phonics, reflected upon its efficacy, and what they think about using it with students with a diverse set of instructional needs. The majority reported that Visual Phonics was easy to use, engaging to students, and easy to integrate into a structured reading curriculum. The majority of respondents agreed that it helps increase phonemic awareness and decoding skills, build vocabulary, as well as increase reading comprehension. The implications of these findings in bridging the research-to-practice gap are discussed.

Introduction: toward an understanding of epistemology and deafness.

The major concept of epistemology--or epistemologies--is discussed, as well as related terms such as paradigm and science. Also covered are two broad paradigms, the clinical and the cultural, that seem to drive theorizing, research, and practice regarding individuals who are d/Deaf or hard of hearing. The two paradigms emanate from different epistemologies and might account for much of the tension in research and practice. Finally, the authors present their view on the nature of scholarly inquiries-namely, that theory, research, and practice should adhere to the principles of a multiparadigmatic science.

Without boundaries: an inquiry into deaf epistemologies through a metaparadigm.

The ongoing debate on Deaf epistemologies reflects two major paradigms in deaf education: positivism and constructivism. The present article investigates Deaf epistemologies through a metaparadigm, which should blur the boundaries among different paradigms and connect the epistemological inquiry to instructional practice for d/Deaf students. The author states that researchers and educators should not be obsessed with defending a particular paradigm and attacking others, but should move toward paradigmatic integration. If successful instructional practices are to be fully understood, each paradigm needs insights from the others. Furthermore, effective classroom instruction should be based on the goal of the educational activity and the ability of the students in the classroom. Mainstream theories and research in English literacy education can and should be applicable to d/Deaf students; furthermore, using appropriate instructional tools, teachers of the d/Deaf can and should teach phonologically related skills to their students.

Deaf epistemologies as a critique and alternative to the practice of science: an anthropological perspective.

In the last decade, and responding to the criticism of orientalism, anthropology has engaged in a self-critical practice, working toward a postcolonial perspective on science and an epistemological stance of partial and situated knowledge (Pinxten, 2006; Pinxten & Note, 2005). In deaf studies, anthropological and sociological studies employing qualitative and ethnographic methods have introduced a paradigm shift. Concepts of deaf culture and deaf identity have been employed as political tools, contributing to the emancipation process of deaf people. However, recent anthropological studies in diverse local contexts indicate the cultural construction of these notions. From this viewpoint, deaf studies faces a challenge to reflect on the notions of culture, emancipation, and education from a nonexclusive, noncolonial perspective. Deaf studies research in a global context needs to deal with cultural and linguistic diversity in human beings and academia. This calls for epistemological reflection and new research methods.

Epistemologies, deafness, learning, and teaching.

The study of Deaf epistemologies is in a nascent stage relative to, e.g., the study of feminist or African American epistemologies. It has only recently begun attracting the widespread attention it deserves. The present article addresses Deaf epistemologies as they relate to the sometimes conflicting trends in American society and education. In a relatively short period, the education of deaf students has gone from an independent enterprise under the aegis of special education to heavy influence by No Child Left Behind legislation that applies to virtually all American students. American education at one and the same time embraces and celebrates diversity, imposes uniform, rigid learning standards for all children, and mandates that all children be tested in the same way. An oxymoron exists of individualized educational planning and one-size-fits-all curricula and assessment of academic achievement. Implications for teaching and learning of deaf students are explored.

The qualitative similarity hypothesis.

Evidence is presented for the qualitative similarity hypothesis (QSH) with respect to children and adolescents who are d/Deaf or hard of hearing. The primary focus is on the development of English language and literacy skills, and some information is provided on the acquisition of English as a second language. The QSH is briefly discussed within the purview of two groups of cognitive models: those that emphasize the cognitive development of individuals and those that pertain to disciplinary or knowledge structures. It is argued that the QSH has scientific merit with implications for classroom instruction. Future research should examine the validity of the QSH in other disciplines such as mathematics and science and should include perspectives from social as well as cognitive models.

Deaf epistemology: the deaf way of knowing.

The standard epistemology requires the use of hard science to gain knowledge and discover the truth. In contrast, Deaf epistemology relies heavily on personal testimonies, personal experiences, and personal accounts to document knowledge. In recent years, a number of deaf schools have adopted deaf-centric policies shaped by Deaf epistemology in an effort to improve academic performance of deaf students. Because of federal laws, all schools are now expected to show accountability in the performance of their students, with data becoming increasingly available for public scrutiny. The preliminary data from three well-known deaf schools are beginning to show that the effectiveness of deaf-centric approaches can be substantiated by the standard epistemology. For this reason, Deaf epistemology and the standard epistemology should not always be viewed as having an oxymoronic relationship.

O processo de inclusão de crianças com deficiência auditiva na escola regular: vivências de professores / The inclusion process of hearing impaired children in regular schools: the experience of teachers

O objetivo do presente estudo foi descrever e discutir, a partir da vivência de professores, o processo de inclusão de crianças com deficiência auditiva em escola regular. Foram selecionadas três crianças entre 05 e 08 anos de idade, e seus respectivos professores. Por meio de entrevistas com as professoras das crianças, foi selecionado o material que permitiu caracterizar o processo de inclusão de cada criança do estudo. Os relatos das professoras sobre suas experiências com as crianças deficientes auditivas deste estudo parecem indicar que, ainda hoje, apesar da evolução das práticas inclusivas, prevalecem nas escolas muito mais os pressupostos da integração do que da inclusão. As professoras foram unânimes em admitir que não vêm sendo suficientemente preparadas para receber deficientes auditivos e pouco sabem sobre o desenvolvimento da audição, da linguagem e sobre como esses aspectos influenciam e determinam formas particulares de apreensão de conteúdos. Prevalece a idéia de que é a criança com necessidades educacionais especiais quem deve se adaptar ao ambiente, empenhar-se para ser nele integrada; ou então, as professoras buscam estratégias individuais de aproximação, sem que essa questão seja problematizada junto ao corpo técnico da escola, que ainda não vem efetivando transformações em sua organização para receber esses alunos.

The aim of this study was to describe and discuss the process of inclusion in regular schools of children who are hearing impaired, based on teachers' perceptions of the process. Three children between the ages of 5 and 8 years and their teachers participated in the study. The interviews with the children's teachers were recorded, and material was selected from the transcripts that allowed us to characterize the inclusion process of each child in the study. The teachers' reports about their experiences with the hearing impaired children of this study seem to indicate that, even today, despite enhancement of inclusive practices, there is evidence that what prevails in schools are the presuppositions of integration rather than the principles of inclusion. Teachers were unanimous in admitting that they are not being sufficiently prepared to receive hearing impaired children and few of them have knowledge of language and hearing development and how such aspects influence and determine the specific ways hearing impaired students apprehend academic content. The main idea that seems to prevail is that it is the obligation of the child with special needs to adapt to the environment, and attempt to integrate him or herself into it. Teachers seek individual strategies of contacting the child, as the issues are not coped with collectively by the administrative and teaching staff. It seems that the school is slow to change in ways that would help to welcome these students.

A peer mentor training program for aural rehabilitation.

This article describes a new training program at Gallaudet University that aims to prepare peer mentors to work under the supervision of hearing-health professionals in the area of aural rehabilitation (AR). The paucity of AR programs for consumers with hearing loss in the United States has been documented. The peer mentor training program is an attempt to harness the energies, skills, and knowledge of people with hearing loss; to expand them through a program of academic and experiential learning; and to put them to work in audiologic practices and other hearing-health care settings in order to improve the quality and quantity of AR available to consumers. A peer mentor training curriculum is described, and the current status of the educational program is reported. Initial anecdotal evidence suggests that the program has the potential to contribute to the development of a more comprehensive model of AR service delivery.

Searching for cochlear implant information on the internet maze: implications for parents and professionals.

The present study has three purposes: (a) to determine who disseminates information on cochlear implants on the Web; (b) to describe a representative sample of Web sites that disseminate information on cochlear implants, with a focus on the content topics and their relevance to parents of deaf children; and (c) to discuss the practical issues of Web-based information and its implications for professionals working with parents of deaf children. Using the terms "cochlear implants" and "children," the first 10 sites generated by the four most popular search engines (Google, Yahoo, Microsoft's MSN, and America Online) at two points in time were selected for analysis, resulting in a sample of 31 Web sites. The majority of Web sites represented medically oriented academic departments and government organizations, although a wide variety of other sources containing information about cochlear implants were also located. Qualitative analysis revealed that the content tended to fall into eight categories; however, the important issues of educational concerns, habilitation following surgery, and communication methods were either addressed minimally or neglected completely. Using analytical tools that had been developed to evaluate "user friendliness" in other domains, each Web site was assessed for its stability, service/design features and ease of use. In general, wide variability was noted across the Web sites for each of these factors. The strong recommendation is made that professionals understand and enhance their knowledge of both the advantages and limitations of incorporating the new technology into their work with parents.

Questões preliminares sobre o ensino de língua de sinais a ouvintes: reflexões sobre a prática / Preliminary questions about the teaching of sign language to hearing people: regarding the practicing

O atendimento à pessoa surda na abordagem bilíngue tem sido defendido pela comunidade surda e por muitos profissionais que trabalham nesta área, educadores, fonoaudiólogos, terapeutas, intérpretes, todavia, para que a abordagem bilíngue se desenvolva é necessário que as famílias de sujeitos surdos, os profissionais que trabalham com eles e outros interessados aprendam a língua de sinais. O propósito deste artigo é discutir aspectos relativos aos ensino da língua brasileira de sinais - LIBRAS - como segunda língua, para ouvintes buscando contribuir para a implementação da proposta de abordagem bilíngue

Beyond hearing aid fitting: improving communication for older adults.

Many older adults with hearing impairment continue to have substantial communication difficulties after being fitted with hearing aids, and many do not choose to wear hearing aids. Two group communication education programs aimed at such older people are described. The 'Keep on Talking' program has a health promotion focus, and is aimed at maintaining communication for older adults living in the community. An experimental group (n = 120) attended the program, and a control group (n = 130) received a communication assessment but no intervention. Significant improvements were found in the experimental participants in terms of knowledge about communication changes with age and about strategies to maintain communication skills. At the follow-up evaluation at 1 year, 45% of the experimental group, compared to 10% of the control group, had acted to improve their communication skills. The 'Active Communication Education' program focuses on the development of problem-solving strategies to improve communication in everyday life situations. Preliminary outcomes have been assessed on a small scale (n = 14) to date. It is concluded that communication programs represent an important adjunct to, or supplement for, the traditional approach that focuses on hearing aid fitting.