Novel cold and thermally pasteurized cardoon-enriched functional smoothie formulations: A zero-waste manufacturing approach.

This study investigated the potential of incorporating cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L.) blades as bioactive and dietary fiber ingredients in vegetable/fruit-based smoothies, within a zero-waste approach. The smoothie formulations were pasteurized by high-pressure (550 MPa for 3 min, HPP) and thermal (90 °C for 30 s, TP) treatments and stored at 4 °C for 50 days. Cardoon-fortified smoothies exhibited higher viscosity, darker color, increased phenolic compound levels, and greater anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. Furthermore, the cardoon blade ingredients contributed to a more stable dietary fiber content throughout the smoothies' shelf-life. HPP-processed smoothies did not contain sucrose, suggesting enzymatic activity that resulted in sucrose hydrolysis. All beverage formulations had low or no microbial growth within European limits. In conclusion, the fortification of smoothies with cardoon blades enhanced bioactive properties and quality attributes during their shelf-life, highlighting the potential of this plant material as a potential functional food ingredient in a circular economy context.

Antioxidant capacity and peptidomic analysis of in vitro digested Camelina sativa L. Crantz and Cynara cardunculus co-products.

In recent decades, the food system has been faced with the significant problem of increasing food waste. Therefore, the feed industry, supported by scientific research, is attempting to valorise the use of discarded biomass as co-products for the livestock sector, in line with EU objectives. In parallel, the search for functional products that can ensure animal health and performances is a common fundamental goal for both animal husbandry and feeding. In this context, camelina cake (CAMC), cardoon cake (CC) and cardoon meal (CM), due valuable nutritional profile, represent prospective alternatives. Therefore, the aim of this work was to investigate the antioxidant activity of CAMC, CC and CM following in vitro digestion using 2,2'-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS), Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assays. Total phenolic content (TPC) and angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity, actively involved in modulating antioxidant properties, were also studied. Further, a peptidomic analysis was adopted to substantiate the presence of bioactive peptides after in vitro digestion. The results obtained confirmed an interesting nutritional profile of CAMC, CC and CM and relevant antioxidant and ACE inhibitory activities. In particular, considering antioxidant profile, CM and CC revealed a significantly higher (10969.80 ± 18.93 mg TE/100 g and 10451.40 ± 149.17 mg TE/100 g, respectively; p < 0.05) ABTS value than CAMC (9511.18 ± 315.29 mg TE/100 g); a trend also confirmed with the FRAP assay (306.74 ± 5.68 mg FeSO4/100 g; 272.84 ± 11.02 mg FeSO4/100 g; 103.84 ± 3.27 mg FeSO4/100 g, for CC, CM and CAMC, respectively). Similar results were obtained for TPC, demonstrating the involvement of phenols in modulating antioxidant activity. Finally, CAMC was found to have a higher ACE inhibitory activity (40.34 ± 10.11%) than the other matrices. Furthermore, potentially bioactive peptides associated with ACE inhibitory, anti-hypertensive, anti-cancer, antimicrobial, antiviral, antithrombotic, DPP-IV inhibitory and PEP-inhibitory activities were identified in CAMC. This profile was broader than that of CC and CM. The presence of such peptides corroborates the antioxidant and ACE profile of the sample. Although the data obtained report the important antioxidant profile of CAMC, CC, and CM and support their possible use, future investigations, particularly in vivo trials will be critical to evaluate and further investigate their effects on the health and performance of farm animals.

Cynara Cardunculus Flavonoids-rich Fraction Alleviates Liver Injury in Mice Overconsumed Fructose Model.

BACKGROUND: Non-alcoholic Fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is becoming a major global health burden in the world. Cynara cardunculus is an edible plant growing wild in the North of Algeria. Its potential as a source of health-promoting compounds is still underexplored. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to explore the preventive effect of Cynara cardunculus (C. cardunculus) on the NAFLD model. METHODS: Total flavonoid contents (TFC) and in vitro antioxidant effects of butanolic (n- BuTOH) and ethyl acetate (EtOAc) fractions on scavenging the ABTS+ radical, inhibition of lipid peroxidation and reducing power proprieties were assessed. The n-ButOH fraction showed the highest TFC and antioxidant capacity in all realized assays. This fraction is used for anti- NAFLD experiments. Adult male Albinos mice were divided into four groups. Group 1 was normal control. Group 2 was watered with 30% of fructose for three weeks to induce the NAFLD model. Group 3 and Group 4 were co-treated with C. cardunculus n-ButOH fractions and Atorvastatin, respectively for three weeks. Blood and livers were collected for biochemical and histological analysis. RESULTS: The C. cardunculus n-ButOH fractions significantly restored levels of transaminases, triglycerides, cholesterol, LDL, glucose and uric acid. The n-ButOH fraction exerted an improving effect on the body and liver weight and liver index. It also significantly corrected the imbalance in liver MDA and GSH levels. The n-ButOH fractions further ameliorated abnormalities in liver histology through suppression of lipid droplets accumulation. CONCLUSION: This research proves that the flavonoid-rich fraction of C. cardunculus has protective activity against high fructose intake in mice via reversing hyperlipidemia and boosting liver antioxidant capacity.

Evaluation of the Phenolic Content and the Nutraceutical Potential of Ancestor and Cultivated Artichokes.

Wild cardoon (Cynara cardunculus var. sylvestris) is the ancestor of many cultivated forms, including globe artichoke (C. cardunculus var. scolymus). Four organs (receptacles, bracts, leaves and stems) of wild and cultivated artichokes (organic and conventional) were assessed considering their individual phenolic constituents (HPLC-DAD), total phenol-flavonoid content, and pharmaceutical potentials (antibacterial and antioxidant). All three sources of artichokes had the highest concentration of 1,3-dicaffeoylquinic acid (cynarin) in their receptacles and cultivated artichoke receptacles had more cynarin than wild one. On the other hand, receptacles of wild cardoon had the highest 1,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid and caffeic acid than the cultivated ones. Generally, receptacles, stems and leaves of wild cardoon were superior to both cultivated artichokes on antioxidant potential, and total phenol-flavonoid content. The rise in total phenolic content can be attributed to an increase in antioxidant capacity in all artichoke organs. Only the leaves of all different artichokes showed antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria. The investigated wild cardoon was believed to be a true ancestor since a comparison of wild and cultivated varieties revealed similar trends in terms of phenolic profile and biological properties. The nutraceutical industry can profit from this invasive wild cardoon due to their strong antioxidant potential and phenolic content.

The wide spectrum of industrial applications for cultivated cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L. var. Altilis DC.): A review.

Cynara cardunculus L. var. altilis DC. belongs to the Asteraceae family and is widely used. This species is integrated into the Mediterranean diet and has broad applicability due to its rich chemical composition. Its flowers, used as a vegetable coagulant for gourmet cheese production, are rich in aspartic proteases. Leaves are rich in sesquiterpene lactones, the most abundant being cynaropicrin, while stems present a higher abundance of hydroxycinnamic acids. Both classes of compounds exhibit a wide range of bioactive properties. Its chemical composition makes it applicable in other industrial sectors, such as energy (e.g., manufacturing of biodiesel and biofuel) or paper pulp production, among other biotechnological applications. In the last decade, cardoon has been identified as a competitive energy crop, constituting an opportunity for the economic recovery and development of the rural areas of the Mediterranean basin. This article reviews the chemical composition, bioactive properties, and multifaceted industrial applications of cardoon.

Wild Artichoke (Cynara cardunculus subsp. sylvestris, Asteraceae) Leaf Extract: Phenolic Profile and Oxidative Stress Inhibitory Effects on HepG2 Cells.

Cynara cardunculus subsp. sylvestris (wild artichoke) is widespread in Sicily, where it has been used for food and medicinal purposes since ancient times; decoctions of the aerial parts of this plant have been traditionally employed as a remedy for different hepatic diseases. In this study, the phenolic profile and cell-free antioxidant properties of the leaf aqueous extract of wild artichokes grown in Sicily (Italy) were investigated. The crude extract was also tested in cells for its antioxidant characteristics and potential oxidative stress inhibitory effects. To resemble the features of the early stage of mild steatosis in humans, human HepG2 cells treated with free fatty acids at the concentration of 1.5 mM were used. HPLC-DAD analysis revealed the presence of several phenolic acids (caffeoylquinic acids) and flavonoids (luteolin and apigenin derivatives). At the same time, DPPH assay showed a promising antioxidant power (IC50 = 20.04 ± 2.52 µg/mL). Biological investigations showed the safety of the crude extract and its capacity to counteract the injury induced by FFA exposure by restoring cell viability and counteracting oxidative stress through inhibiting reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxidation and increasing thiol-group levels. In addition, the extract increased mRNA expression of some proteins implicated in the antioxidant defense (Nrf2, Gpx, and SOD1) and decreased mRNA levels of inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1ß), which were modified by FFA treatment. Results suggest that the total phytocomplex contained in wild artichoke leaves effectively modulates FFA-induced hepatic oxidative stress.

Successive Solvent Extraction, Characterization and Antioxidant Activities of Cardoon Waste (Leaves and Stems) Extracts: Comparative Study.

The main interest in the valorization of vegetable wastes is due to the peculiarity of their chemical composition in substances that present important properties. Among these substances, antioxidants could replace those industrially manufactured. In the present study, three solvents of different polarities (hexane, ethanol, and water) were applied for the extraction of phenolic compounds from Cynara cardunculus L. waste using two extraction methods: Soxhlet Extraction (SE) and Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction (UAE). The obtained extracts were then characterized by Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and spectrophotometric determination of Total Phenolics (TPC), Total Flavonoids (TFC), and Condensed Tannins (CT). Total Antioxidant Capacity (TAC) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging activity of ethanol and water extracts of leaves and stems were also evaluated. High extraction yields were obtained by UAE. Water extracts had high yield regardless of the technique used for leaves and stems, and these extracts showed high TAC of 534.72 ± 3.83 mg AAE/g FM for leaves and 215.70 ± 8.87 mg AAE/g FM (mg of ascorbic acid equivalent per g of FM) for stems, and IC50 of 2077.491 µg/mL for leaves and 1248.185 µg/mL for stems. We explain the latter by the high total phenolic contents (TPCs), which reach 579.375 ± 3.662 mg GAE/g FM (mg of gallic acid equivalents per g of fresh matter) for leaves and 264.906 ± 3.500 mg GAE/g FM for stems. These results confirmed that the leaves and stems of the studied cardoon waste were, indeed, interesting sources of natural antioxidants.

Neuroprotective Properties of Cardoon Leaves Extracts against Neurodevelopmental Deficits in an In Vitro Model of Rett Syndrome Depend on the Extraction Method and Harvest Time.

This study investigates the bioactive properties of different extracts of cardoon leaves in rescuing neuronal development arrest in an in vitro model of Rett syndrome (RTT). Samples were obtained from plants harvested at different maturity stages and extracted with two different methodologies, namely Naviglio® and supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2). While scCO2 extracts more hydrophobic fractions, the Naviglio® method extracts phenolic compounds and less hydrophobic components. Only the scCO2 cardoon leaves extract obtained from plants harvested in spring induced a significant rescue of neuronal atrophy in RTT neurons, while the scCO2 extract from the autumn harvest stimulated dendrite outgrowth in Wild-Type (WT) neurons. The scCO2 extracts were the richest in squalene, 3ß-taraxerol and lupeol, with concentrations in autumn harvest doubling those in spring harvest. The Naviglio® extract was rich in cynaropicrin and exerted a toxic effect at 20 µM on both WT and RTT neurons. When cynaropicrin, squalene, lupeol and 3ß-taraxerol were tested individually, no positive effect was observed, whereas a significant neurotoxicity of cynaropicrin and lupeol was evident. In conclusion, cardoon leaves extracts with high content of hydrophobic bioactive molecules and low cynaropicrin and lupeol concentrations have pharmacological potential to stimulate neuronal development in RTT and WT neurons in vitro.

Chemical composition of cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L. var. altilis) petioles as affected by plant growth stage.

In the present study petioles were collected from cultivated cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L. var altilis) plants in central Greece at sixteen harvest dates (samples P1-P16) and nine growth stages (principal growth stages (PGS) 1-9). The main objective of this study was to study the influence of petioles' growth cycle on their chemical composition. The lipidic content, fatty acids, free sugars, organic acids, and tocopherol composition were analyzed. A total of 27 fatty acids were identified, being the palmitic acid (C16:0, 12.42-50%) the most abundant, except for samples P4 and P5 where linoleic acid revealed the highest relative abundance (C18:2n6c, 46.5 and 39.05%, respectively). The α-, ß-, and γ-tocopherols were the identified isoforms of vitamin E, with sample P1 recording the highest tocopherol content. The detected organic acids were oxalic, quinic, malic, citric, and fumaric acids with the highest content being observed in sample P1. Sucrose was the major sugar in all the analyzed samples, followed by fructose, glucose, trehalose, and raffinose. The obtained results allowed us to characterize the chemical composition of cardoon petioles throughout its growth cycle and, consequently, to valorize the species through the exploitation of underutilized plant tissues.

Effects of Ethanolic Extract of Cynara cardunculus (Artichoke) Leaves on Neuroinflammatory and Neurochemical Parameters in a Diet-Induced Mice Obesity Model.

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of Cynara cardunculus leaf ethanol extract on inflammatory and oxidative stress parameters in the hypothalamus, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, striatum, cerebral cortex and liver of high-fat diet-induced obese mice. Food intake, body weight, visceral fat weight, and liver weight were also evaluated. Male Swiss mice were divided into control (low-fat purified diet) and obese (high-fat purified diet) groups. After 6 weeks, mice were divided into control + saline, control + C. cardunculus leaf ethanol extract, obese + saline, obese + C. cardunculus leaf ethanol extract. Cynara cardunculus leaf ethanol extract (1600 mg/kg/day) or saline was administered orally for 4 weeks. Brain structures (hypothalamus, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, striatum and cerebral cortex) and liver were removed. Treatment with C. cardunculus leaf ethanol extract did not affect body weight but did reduce visceral fat. Obesity can cause inflammation and oxidative stress and increase the activity of antioxidant enzymes in brain structures. Treatment with ethanolic extract of C. cardunculus leaves partially reversed the changes in inflammatory damage parameters and oxidative damage parameters and attenuated changes in the antioxidant defense. The C. cardunculus leaf ethanol extract benefited from the brains of obese animals by partially reversing the changes caused by the consumption of a high-fat diet and the consequent obesity. These results corroborate those of studies indicating that the C. cardunculus leaf ethanol extract can contribute to the treatment of obesity.

Encapsulation of Cynara Cardunculus Guaiane-type Lactones in Fully Organic Nanotubes Enhances Their Phytotoxic Properties.

The encapsulation of bioactive natural products has emerged as a relevant tool for modifying the poor physicochemical properties often exhibited by agrochemicals. In this regard, natural guaiane-type sesquiterpene lactones isolated from Cynara cardunculus L. have been encapsulated in a core/shell nanotube@agrochemical system. Monitoring of the F and O signals in marked sesquiterpenes confirmed that the compound is present in the nanotube cavity. These structures were characterized using scanning transmission electron microscopy-X-ray energy-dispersive spectrometry techniques, which revealed the spatial layout relationship and confirmed encapsulation of the sesquiterpene lactone derivative. In addition, biological studies were performed with aguerin B (1), cynaropicrin (2), and grosheimin (3) on the inhibition of germination, roots, and shoots in weeds (Phalaris arundinacea L., Lolium perenne L., and Portulaca oleracea L.). Encapsulation of lactones in nanotubes gives better results than those for the nonencapsulated compounds, thereby reinforcing the application of fully organic nanotubes for the sustainable use of agrochemicals in the future.

Cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L. var. altilis) seeds presscake: a natural by-product for pigs feeding.

The cardoon seeds presscake is a natural by-product resulting from the mechanical treatment of the cardoon plant seeds. The chemical composition suggests its possible use in animal nutrition due to the content of proteins, fibre, lipids and biologically active substances. The presscake studied contained 7.1% of fat, 26.8% of fibre, 23.9% of protein, 37.1% of nitrogen-free extract and a goodly phenolic content (13.36 mg GAE g-1 DW). The major fatty acids were oleic (26.5%) and linoleic (58.4%), showing a high degree of unsaturation. This study evaluated for the first time the inclusion of the cardoon presscake in pigs' diet. The effects of the dietary treatment on meat quality and fatty acids profile were assessed. The results indicate that the intramuscular fat (IMF) was higher in the untreated animals. The monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) were lower in the IMF of the treated pigs, whereas the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) were higher.

The Effects of Bergamot Polyphenolic Fraction, Cynara cardunculus, and Olea europea L. Extract on Doxorubicin-Induced Cardiotoxicity.

Doxorubicin is an anthracycline that is commonly used as a chemotherapy drug due to its cytotoxic effects. The clinical use of doxorubicin is limited due to its known cardiotoxic effects. Treatment with anthracyclines causes heart failure in 15-17% of patients, resulting in mitochondrial dysfunction, the accumulation of reactive oxygen species, intracellular calcium dysregulation, the deterioration of the cardiomyocyte structure, and apoptotic cell death. Polyphenols have a wide range of beneficial properties, and particular importance is given to Bergamot Polyphenolic Fraction; Oleuropein, one of the main polyphenolic compounds of olive oil; and Cynara cardunculus extract. These natural compounds have particular beneficial characteristics, owing to their high polyphenol contents. Among these, their antioxidant and antoproliferative properties are the most important. The aim of this paper was to investigate the effects of these three plant derivatives using an in vitro model of cardiotoxicity induced by the treatment of rat embryonic cardiomyoblasts (H9c2) with doxorubicin. The biological mechanisms involved and the crosstalk existing between the mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum were examined. Bergamot Polyphenolic Fraction, Oleuropein, and Cynara cardunculus extract were able to decrease the damage induced by exposure to doxorubicin. In particular, these natural compounds were found to reduce cell mortality and oxidative damage, increase the lipid content, and decrease the concentration of calcium ions that escaped from the endoplasmic reticulum. In addition, the direct involvement of this cellular organelle was demonstrated by silencing the ATF6 arm of the Unfolded Protein Response, which was activated after treatment with doxorubicin.

Seasonal variation in bioactive properties and phenolic composition of cardoon (Cynara cardunculus var. altilis) bracts.

Cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L.) bracts were collected at different maturation stages to investigate seasonal changes in the phenolic compounds profile and in vitro bioactivities. Among the 12 phenolic compounds tentatively identified, 3,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid (21.83 mg/g extract) and apigenin-7-O-glucuronide (10.6 mg/g extract) were the most abundant. Immature bracts (C1: principal growth stage (PGS) 5) had the highest phenolic compounds content, and anti-inflammatory (IC50 = 72 µg/mL) and cytotoxic (GI50 of 30-79 µg/mL) activities. Moreover, extract C1 inhibited efficiently the formation of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS; IC50 = 26.8 µg/mL), while extract C8 (PGS 8/9) was more effective against oxidative haemolysis (IC50 38 and 75 µg/mL). The highest antibacterial and antifungal activities were attributed to samples C1 and C6 (PGS 7/8) and samples C2 (PGS 5/6) and C4 (PGS 6/7), respectively. Overall, the obtained results suggest the seasonal changes of polyphenolic composition and bioactivity of cardoon bracts of variable maturity.

Effect of Shading on the Sesquiterpene Lactone Content and Phytotoxicity of Cultivated Cardoon Leaf Extracts.

The work described here follows on from a previous study focused on the influence of the genotype and harvest time on the sesquiterpene lactone (STL) profile of Cynara cardunculus L. leaf extracts. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect that 60% plant shading in cultivated cardoon (C. cardunculus var. altilis) leaf extracts harvested in winter and spring had on the composition of STLs and the phytotoxicity. The phytotoxicity of leaf extracts was evaluated by assessing wheat coleoptile elongation along with seed germination and the root and shoot length of the weeds Amaranthus retroflexus L. and Portulaca oleracea L. Shading increased the production of STLs in spring, and this effect correlated positively with the phytotoxic activity. The induction of shading can therefore be used to modulate STL concentrations and their phytotoxic potential in cultivated cardoon leaves for industrial applications.

Development of bioactive films based on chitosan and Cynara cardunculus leaves extracts for wound dressings.

The development of natural based, effective and protective wound dressings associated to local treatment applied on chronic wounds, represents a major challenge nowadays. In this work chitosan-based films were prepared with different concentrations of ethanolic ultrasound assisted extracts from Cynara cardunculus leaves (EtPUAE). The physico-chemical film properties revealed that extract incorporation influences the volumetric swelling capacity and mechanical properties of the films, leading to materials with a lower fluid absorption capacity and more fragile. However, no impact was detected on the thermal properties of the films, as well as on their dense structure characterized by Scanning Electronic Microscopy (SEM) analysis. Biological screening of chitosan-based films show that chitosan with a 1% (w/w) and a 5% (w/w) EtPUAE loading did not induce cytotoxicity on normal human skin fibroblasts (Bj5-ta cell line), mainly attributed to cynaropicrin (extract key active compound) present in the film below its IC50 value. Nevertheless, chitosan-based films with 5% (w/w) EtPUAE presented an interesting anti-inflammatory activity. Bj5-ta cells stimulated with liposaccharides (LPS), presented a reduction of 86% on IL-6 cytokine levels, after exposure to chitosan with 5% EtPUAE film extract. The results obtained in this study open up the possibility of successfully using chitosan films doped with EtPUAE for development of chronic wound dressings, with the advantage of using naturally-sourced materials with anti-inflammatory activity.

Randomized Clinical Trial: Bergamot Citrus and Wild Cardoon Reduce Liver Steatosis and Body Weight in Non-diabetic Individuals Aged Over 50 Years.

Background: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease is the most common cause of liver-related morbidity and mortality in the world. However, no effective pharmacological treatment for this condition has been found. Purpose: This study evaluated the effect of a nutraceutical containing bioactive components from Bergamot citrus and wild cardoon as a treatment for individuals with fatty liver disease. The primary outcome measure was the change in liver fat content. Methods: A total of 102 patients with liver steatosis were enrolled in a double-blind placebo controlled clinical trial. The intervention group received a nutraceutical containing a Bergamot polyphenol fraction and Cynara Cardunculus extract, 300 mg/day for 12 weeks. The control group received a placebo daily. Liver fat content, by transient elastography, serum transaminases, lipids and glucose were measured at the baseline and the end of the study. Results: We found a greater liver fat content reduction in the participants taking the nutraceutical rather than placebo (-48.2 ± 39 vs. -26.9 ± 43 dB/m, p = 0.02); The percentage CAP score reduction was statistically significant in those with android obesity, overweight/obesity as well as in women. However, after adjustment for weight change, the percentage CAP score reduction was statistically significant only in those over 50 years (44 vs. 78% in placebo and nutraceutical, respectively, p = 0.007). Conclusions: This specific nutraceutical containing bioactive components from Bergamot and wild cardoon reduced the liver fat content during 12 weeks in individuals with liver steatosis over 50 years. If confirmed, this nutraceutical could become the cornerstone treatment of patients affected by liver steatosis. Clinical Trial Registration: www.isrctn.com, identifier ISRCTN12833814.

Phenolic Compounds in Poorly Represented Mediterranean Plants in Istria: Health Impacts and Food Authentication.

Phenolic compounds are well-known bioactive compounds in plants that can have a protective role against cancers, cardiovascular diseases and many other diseases. To promote local food development, a comprehensive overview of the phenolic compounds' composition and their impact on human health from typical Mediterranean plants such as Punica granatum L., Ziziphus jujuba Mill., Arbutus unedo L., Celtis australis L., Ficus carica L., Cynara cardunculus var. Scolymus L. is provided. Moreover, the potential use of these data for authenticity determination is discussed. Some of the plants' phenolic compounds and their impact to human health are very well determined, while for others, the data are scarce. However, in all cases, more data should be available about the content, profile and health impacts due to a high variation of phenolic compounds depending on genetic and environmental factors. Quantifying variation in phenolic compounds in plants relative to genetic and environmental factors could be a useful tool in food authentication control. More comprehensive studies should be conducted to better understand the importance of phenolic compounds on human health and their variation in certain plants.

Cynara cardunculus Crude Extract as a Powerful Natural Herbicide and Insight into the Mode of Action of Its Bioactive Molecules.

The use of chemical herbicides could not only potentially induce negative impacts on the environment, animals, and human health, but also increase the weed resistance to herbicides. In this context, the use of plant extracts could be an interesting and natural alternative to chemical products. It is important to understand the mode of action of their bioactive compounds. This is why we have studied the herbicidal effect of Cynara cardunculus crude extract in terms of inhibition of weeds' seedling growth and its impact on physiological parameters of treated plantlets, like conductivity, dry weight, and fluorescence, and biochemical parameters linked to oxidative stress. We have observed that C. cardunculus crude extract induces oxidative stress in the treated plants and consequently disturbs the physiological and biochemical functions of the plant cells. We have investigated the herbicidal activity of three bioactive compounds, naringenin, myricitrin, and quercetin, from the C. cardunculus crude extract. In both pre- and post-emergence trials, naringenin and myricitrin were significantly more phytotoxic than quercetin. We suggest that their differential initial interaction with the plant's plasma membrane could be one of the main signals for electrolyte leakage and production of high levels of phenoxyl radicals.

Phenolic compounds content and antioxidant capacity in cardoon achenes from different head orders.

Cardoon inflorescences (heads) contain achenes, which are used for the production of edible oil and biodiesel but also represent a phenolic source. This research aimed at determining the level of bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity of cardoon achenes and investigating their qualitative and quantitative variations in achenes harvested from heads having different insertion order on main stem. The head order significantly affected the number of achenes per head and one thousand weight but did not affect the achene values of antioxidant capacity and concentrations of total phenolic (107.7-117.4 g gallic acid equivalent kg-1 dry weight), as well as the concentration of chlorogenic and 3,5-di-O-E-caffeoylquinic acids. Conversely, the absolute amounts of these metabolites differed significantly among head order when referred to a single achene or head. About 75% of their absolute values per cardoon plant were produced by achenes belonging to secondary and tertiary heads.