Traditional high jump Gusimbuka Urukiramende: Could early 20th century African athletes beat Olympic champions?

During the first half of the 20th century, extraordinary high jumping performances of East-African athletes were observed. These athletes used a specific native jumping style called Gusimbuka Urukiramende. Eye-witnesses believed that these performances could have been world-records and that these athletes could have competed at the Olympics. However, these athletes never participated in international competitions and there is no other proof to support these performance claims. We have analysed historical photos and cine sequences of these jumps, documented the movement analysis of this technique, quantified performance and compared it to contemporaneous elite performances. Our analyses demonstrate that Gusimbuka Urukiramende athletes did not jump as high as the world record. Nevertheless, even though they used a suboptimal jump technique (because they had to lift their bodies higher to cross the bar) they could cross bar heights of 188 cm or 106% body height and as such their performance still was worthy of participation to the Olympics.

La cuantificación de la carga de entrenamiento - elemento básico del rendimiento deportivo en el siglo XXI / Quantification of Training load - a basic element of sports performance in the 21st century

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Historicising Cultural Sport Psychology: Dare we De-centre Methodological Eurocentrism? / Historiando la Psicología Cultural Deportiva: ¿Nos atrevemos a descentrar el eurocentrismo metodológico?

In this essay we critically reflect on our respective journeys to and within cultural sport psychology (CSP). Since the inception, CSP scholars have advocated for opening the privileged academic space for marginalised voices and omitted subject themes; as well as cautioned re-searchers that the CSP project itself needs to be constantly revisited and reworked to keep it in progressive flux. We argue that, despite some notable advances, CSP remains a predominantly white Anglo-American intellectual space and that previous calls to engage with issues of power and privilege in the prevailing knowledge production have been largely unanswered. The lack of diverse voices within the CSP community may be a sign of stagnation. Therefore, we believe that sport psychology community would do well to discuss the ways in which CSP research and academic/applied practices may be alienating to the new generation of sport scholars and activists

En este ensayo reflexionamos críticamente sobre nuestros respectivos viajes a y dentro de la psicología cultural del deporte (PCD). Desde su principio, los académicos de la PCD han abogado por abrir el espacio académico privilegiado a voces marginadas y los temas omitidos; así como han advertido a los investigadores que el proyecto de la PCD en sí mismo necesita ser constantemente revisado y reelaborado para mantenerlo en un flujo progresivo. Sostenemos que, pese algunos avances notables, la PCD sigue siendo un espacio intelectual angloamericano predominantemente blanco y que los llamados a participar en cuestiones de poder y privilegio en la producción de conocimientos predominantes han quedado en gran medida sin respuesta. La falta de voces diversas dentro de la comunidad de la PCD puede ser un signo de estancamiento. Por lo tanto, creemos que la comunidad de psicología deportiva haría bien en discutir las formas en que la investigación y las prácticas académicas/aplicadas de la PCD pueden ser alienantes para la nueva generación de académicos y activistas deportivos

Hidden dynamics of soccer leagues: The predictive 'power' of partial standings.

OBJECTIVES: Soccer leagues reflect the partial standings of the teams involved after each round of competition. However, the ability of partial league standings to predict end-of-season position has largely been ignored. Here we analyze historical partial standings from English soccer to understand the mathematics underpinning league performance and evaluate the predictive 'power' of partial standings. METHODS: Match data (1995-2017) from the four senior English leagues was analyzed, together with random match scores generated for hypothetical leagues of equivalent size. For each season the partial standings were computed and Kendall's normalized tau-distance and Spearman r-values determined. Best-fit power-law and logarithmic functions were applied to the respective tau-distance and Spearman curves, with the 'goodness-of-fit' assessed using the R2 value. The predictive ability of the partial standings was evaluated by computing the transition probabilities between the standings at rounds 10, 20 and 30 and the final end-of-season standings for the 22 seasons. The impact of reordering match fixtures was also evaluated. RESULTS: All four English leagues behaved similarly, irrespective of the teams involved, with the tau-distance conforming closely to a power law (R2>0.80) and the Spearman r-value obeying a logarithmic function (R2>0.87). The randomized leagues also conformed to a power-law, but had a different shape. In the English leagues, team position relative to end-of-season standing became 'fixed' much earlier in the season than was the case with the randomized leagues. In the Premier League, 76.9% of the variance in the final standings was explained by round-10, 87.0% by round-20, and 93.9% by round-30. Reordering of match fixtures appeared to alter the shape of the tau-distance curves. CONCLUSIONS: All soccer leagues appear to conform to mathematical laws, which constrain the league standings as the season progresses. This means that partial standings can be used to predict end-of-season league position with reasonable accuracy.

Investigating "A Consensus of Uninformed Dogma": C.H. McCloy and Strength Training Research at the University of Iowa in the Mid-Twentieth Century.

Shurley, JP. Investigating "A Consensus of Uninformed Dogma": C.H. McCloy and Strength Training Research at the University of Iowa in the Mid-Twentieth Century. J Strength Cond Res 33(12): 3201-3212, 2019-Into the 1960s, many coaches advised their athletes to avoid weight training, fearing that lifting weights would result in their becoming stiff, slow, and "muscle-bound." By the early 1970s, however, some teams had begun hiring specialists to devise and supervise strength and conditioning programs for their athletes. This paradigm shift in the understanding of the relationship between strength training and athletic performance was precipitated by numerous factors, including the exposure of many soldiers to barbells during World War II, Cold War-era concerns about soft living, athletes who trained despite their coaches' advice, and scientists who investigated the effects of strength training. C.H. McCloy, a Research Professor of Anthropometry and Physical Education at the University of Iowa from 1930 to 1954, was one of the first in the field of physical education to encourage and promote research on strength training. Although an advocate of various forms of training throughout his career, McCloy began to encourage investigations of the relationship between strength and performance by Iowa graduate students in the late 1940s. When those studies indicated that barbell training actually enhanced jump height, swimming speed, and more, McCloy publicized those results in the classroom, at conference talks, and in both professional and popular press magazines. Some of those investigations became part of the foundation on which later strength research was based. Owing to his backing and promotion of scientific investigations of strength training, C.H. McCloy was a key figure in making strength training an integral element of sport preparation.

The influence of pacing strategy on marathon world records.

The aim of this study was to analyse the influence of the pacing strategy adopted by elite marathon runners when setting every marathon world record in the last 50 years. We divided former marathon record holders into two groups: classic athletes (record holders between 1967 and 1988) and contemporaneous athletes (record holders between 1988 and 2018). The total distance of the marathon was divided into 8 sections of 5 km and 1 last section of 2.195 km, and the relative average speed of each section was calculated individually. On average athletes were slightly faster in the first half-marathon than in the second one, where they slowed down progressively (ES = 0.28, small effect). However, when comparing classic vs. contemporaneous athletes, we observed that classic athletes started significantly faster (p < .05, ES = 1.16, moderate effect), although after 25 km, their speed dropped dramatically and was significantly slower than in their contemporaneous counterparts (ES = 2.41, very large effect). This study shows that the pacing strategies of the best marathon runners in the world have changed over the last 50 years. Although a negative pace distribution has been proposed as the most efficient option, a pacing strategy characterised by very little speed changes across the whole race may be the way to go in the future.

Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race: Performance, Pacing and Tactics Between 1890 and 2014.

BACKGROUND: Currently no studies have examined the historical performances of Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race crews in the context of performance, pacing and tactics which is surprising as the event has routinely taken place annually for over 150 years on the same course. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was twofold, to firstly examine the historical development of performances and physical characteristics of crews over 124 years of the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race between 1890 and 2014 and secondly to investigate the pacing and tactics employed by crews over that period. METHODS: Linear regression modelling was applied to investigate the development of performance and body size for crews of eight male individuals over time from Boat Race archive data. Performance change over time was further assessed in 10-year clusters while four intra-race checkpoints were used to examine pacing and tactics. RESULTS: Significant correlations were observed between performance and time (1890-2014) for both Oxford (r = -0.67; p < 0.01) and Cambridge (r = -0.64; p < 0.01). There was no difference in mean performance times for Oxford (1170 ± 88 s) and Cambridge (1168 ± 89.8 s) during 1890-2014. Crew performance times improved over time with significant gains from baseline achieved in the 1950s (Cambridge) and the 1960s (Oxford), which coincided with significant change in the physicality of the competing crews (p < 0.01). There was no tactical advantage from commencing on either the Surrey or Middlesex station beyond chance alone; however, all crews (n = 228) adopted a fast-start strategy, with 81 % of victories achieved by the crew leading the race at the first intra-race checkpoint (24 % of total distance). Crews leading the race at the final checkpoint (83 % of total distance; 1143 m) achieved victory on 94 % of occasions. CONCLUSION: Performances and physical characteristics of the crews have changed markedly since 1890, with faster heavier crews now common. Tactically, gaining the early lead position with a fast-start strategy seems particularly meaningful to success in the Boat Race throughout the years, and has been of greater importance to race outcome than factors such as the starting station.

Formación de Entrenadores de Fútbol Base en el Proyecto PAPA / Grassroots coaches training in the papa project / Formação de treinadores de futebol de formação no projecto papa

The aim of the present work was twofold: (1) To describe the features of the motivational education program for coaches Empowering CoachingTM, implemented in the European Project PAPA (Promoting Adolescent Physical Activity) and (2) To assess Spanish grassroots coaches’ perception on the education workshops of the program as well as its implications at two different times, once the workshop had finished and after one year. 521 grassroots coaches from five participant countries (Spain, France, Greece, England and Norway) attended the Empowering CoachingTM workshops. Among them, 105 were from Spain (77 from the Valencian Community and 28 from Catalonia). In the follow-up data collection, 52 grassroots coaches from the Valencian Community participated. Questionnaires assessing satisfaction with the workshop, implementation, and barriers revealed that coaches were able to apply the workshop contents in their daily practice. Moreover, what was learned at the Empowering CoachingTM workshops was perceived to be innovative and made the coaches rethink their ideas about training. All of the grassroots coaches attending the workshops reported understanding and feeling able to integrate the Empowering CoachingTM principles in their practices and games, thus feeling able to become empowering coaches. Almost all coaches also reported not having difficulties to create empowering climates in their teams, finding the main difficulties with parents

El objetivo del presente trabajo ha sido doble: (1) Describir las características del programa de formación motivacional para entrenadores Empowering CoachingTM, aplicado en el marco del proyecto europeo PAPA (Promoting Adolescent Physical Activity) y (2) Analizar la percepción que tuvieron los entrenadores de fútbol base españoles sobre los talleres de formación de dicho programa y sus repercusiones, en dos momentos distintos, una vez finalizado el taller y un año después. Un total de 521 entrenadores de fútbol base de los cinco países participantes (España, Francia, Grecia, Inglaterray Noruega) asistieron a los talleres Empowering CoachingTM. De estos entrenadores, 105 acudieron a los talleres realizados en España (77 en la Comunidad Valenciana y 28 en Cataluña). En la fase de seguimiento participaron un total de 52 entrenadores de fútbol base de la Comunidad Valenciana. Los análisis de los cuestionarios de satisfacción con el taller y de puesta en práctica y barreras mostraron que los entrenadores lograron aplicar lo aprendido en el taller en su actividad como entrenador. Asimismo, la formación recibida en los talleres Empowering CoachingTM fue percibida como novedosa y les hizo replantear sus ideas sobre el entrenamiento. La totalidad de los entrenadores de fútbol base asistentes a los talleres informaron entender y poder integrar en sus entrenamientos y partidos los principios de Empowering CoachingTM, para convertirse en entrenadores empowering. Por último, la práctica totalidad de los entrenadores de fútbol base informaron no haber tenido dificultad para crear un clima empowering en sus equipos, habiendo encontrado las mayores dificultades en los padres

objectivo do presente trabalho foi duplo: (1) Descrever as características do programa de formação motivacional para treinadoresEmpowering CoachingTM, aplicado no âmbito do projecto europeu PAPA (Promoting Adolescents Physical Activity) e (2) Analisar a percepção quetiveram os treinadores de futebol de formação espanhóis sobre as acções de formação desse programa e as suas repercussões, em dois momentos distintos,uma vez finalizada a formação e um ano depois. Um total de 521 treinadores de futebol de formação dos cinco países participantes (Espanha, França,Grécia, Inglaterra e Noruega) assistiram às acções de formação Empowering CoachingTM. Destes treinadores, 105 assistiram às acções realizadas emEspanha (77 na Comunidade Valenciana e 28 na Catalunha). Na fase de follow-up participaram um total de 52 treinadores de futebol de formação daComunidade Valenciana. As análises dos questionários de satisfação com a acção de formação e de aplicação e barreiras revelaram que os treinadoresconseguiram aplicar na sua actividade o aprendido na acção de formação. De igual modo, a formação recebida nas acções Empowering CoachingTM foipercebida como inovadora, o que levou os treinadores a reformular a sua concepção de treino. A totalidade dos treinadores de futebol que assistiram asacções de formação reportaram entender e poder integrar nos seus treinos e competições os principios do Empowering CoachingTM, de forma aconverterem-se em treinadores empowering. Por último, a quase totalidade dos treinadores de futebol de formação afirmaram não terem tido dificuldadeem criar um clima empoweringnas suas equipas, tendo encontrado as maiores dificuldades nos pais

Sex and gender issues in competitive sports: investigation of a historical case leads to a new viewpoint.

Based on DNA analysis of a historical case, the authors describe how a female athlete can be unknowingly confronted with the consequences of a disorder of sex development resulting in hyperandrogenism emerging early in her sports career. In such a situation, it is harmful and confusing to question sex and gender. Exposure to either a low or high level of endogenous testosterone from puberty is a decisive factor with respect to sexual dimorphism of physical performance. Yet, measurement of testosterone is not the means by which questions of an athlete's eligibility to compete with either women or men are resolved. The authors discuss that it might be justifiable to use the circulating testosterone level as an endocrinological parameter, to try to arrive at an objective criterion in evaluating what separates women and men in sports competitions, which could prevent the initiation of complicated, lengthy and damaging sex and gender verification procedures.

High-performance sport, marijuana, and cannabimimetics.

The prohibition on use of cannabinoids in sporting competitions has been widely debated and continues to be a contentious issue. Information continues to accumulate on the adverse health effects of smoked marijuana and the decrement of performance caused by the use of cannabinoids. The objective of this article is to provide an overview of cannabinoids and cannabimimetics that directly or indirectly impact sport, the rules of sport, and performance of the athlete. This article reviews some of the history of marijuana in Olympic and Collegiate sport, summarizes the guidelines by which a substance is added to the World Anti-Doping Agency Prohibited List, and updates information on the pharmacologic effects of cannabinoids and their mechanism of action. The recently marketed cannabimimetics Spice and K2 are included in the discussion as they activate the same receptors as are activated by THC. The article also provides a view as to why the World Anti-Doping Agency prohibits cannabinoid or cannabimimetic use incompetition and should continue to do so.

Investigating customer racial discrimination in the secondary baseball card market.

A growing body of literature in a variety of disciplines has appeared over the last 20 years examining customer racial bias in the secondary sports card market; however, consensus on the matter has yet to emerge. In this article, we explore the more subtle ways that a player's race/ethnicity may affect the value of his sports card including a player's skin tone (light- to dark-skinned). Data were obtained for 383 black, Latino, and white baseball players who had received at least one vote for induction into Major League Baseball's Hall of Fame including their career performance statistics, rookie card price, card availability, Hall of Fame status, and skin tone. Findings indicate that card availability is the primary determinant of card value while a player's skin tone has no direct effect. Subsequent analysis demonstrates that a player's race (white/non-white) rather than skin tone did have an effect as it interacts with Hall of Fame status to influence his rookie card price.

From antiquity to Olympic revival: sports and Greek national historiography (nineteenth-twentieth centuries).

This study investigates the evolution of the historiography of Greek sport from the foundation of the Greek state (1830) until 1982 and its links with Greek national history, which also took shape primarily during the nineteenth century. The gradual 'nationalisation' of sport as an element of Greek national character since antiquity corresponded to changes in perceptions of the national past reflected in historiography. The ancient Olympic Games, Byzantine contests and exercises, the competitions of the klephts and armatoloi (militia soldiers) during the Ottoman rule and the modern revival of the Olympic Games were all successively integrated in a national history of sport confirming national continuity and unity. However this particular genre of national historiography did not gain academic recognition until recently. The authors of histories of physical exercise and sport were amateurs or physical education instructors and could not ensure to their work the authority of a separate discipline.

Bodies that differ: mid- and upper-class women and the quest for "Greekness" in female bodily culture (1896-1940).

This article discusses different expressions of mid- and upper-class Greek women's use of classical antiquity in relation to female bodily culture. It focuses on two cases, connected with successive phases of the collective women's action in Greece. The first case concerns principally the conjuncture of the Athens Olympic Games of 1896. The games offered the opportunity to the Ladies' Journal, the weekly that gave expression to the first feminist group in Greece and its leading figure, C. Parren, to put forward a discourse which, by constructing a specific image of the ancient Heraia games for 'maidens', 'invents' a specific athletic-competitive 'tradition' on behalf of Greek women of their social class. The second case rejoins the same circle of women principally in the interwar years as leading figures of the Lyceum of Greek Women, the organization which distinguished itself by juxtaposing to the newly formed militant feminist organizations its 'hellenic-worthy' activity, by organizing monumental festivals in the Panathenaic Stadium, which, through displays of 'national' dances - folk and 'ancient' dances - and other ritual events, performed the 'tradition' of the nation from prehistory until today.