Independent Generation and Time-Resolved Detection of 2'-Deoxyguanosin-N2-yl Radicals.

Guanine radicals are important reactive intermediates in DNA damage. Hydroxyl radical (HO. ) has long been believed to react with 2'-deoxyguanosine (dG) generating 2'-deoxyguanosin-N1-yl radical (dG(N1-H). ) via addition to the nucleobase π-system and subsequent dehydration. This basic tenet was challenged by an alternative mechanism, in which the major reaction of HO. with dG was proposed to involve hydrogen atom abstraction from the N2-amine. The 2'-deoxyguanosin-N2-yl radical (dG(N2-H). ) formed was proposed to rapidly tautomerize to dG(N1-H). . We report the first independent generation of dG(N2-H). in high yield via photolysis of 1. dG(N2-H). is directly observed upon nanosecond laser flash photolysis (LFP) of 1. The absorption spectrum of dG(N2-H). is corroborated by DFT studies, and anti- and syn-dG(N2-H). are resolved for the first time. The LFP experiments showed no evidence for tautomerization of dG(N2-H). to dG(N1-H). within hundreds of microseconds. This observation suggests that the generation of dG(N1-H). via dG(N2-H). following hydrogen atom abstraction from dG is unlikely to be a major pathway when HO. reacts with dG.

Chironomus ramosus larvae exhibit DNA damage control in response to gamma radiation.

PURPOSE: Chironomus ramosus is one of the recently reported radiotolerant insects. Salivary gland cells of fourth instar larvae respond to ionizing radiations with increases in the levels of antioxidant enzymes and chaperone proteins. Here we made an attempt to study the state of nuclear DNA after exposure of larvae to a lethal dose for 20% of the population (LD(20)) of gamma radiation (2200 Gy, at a dose rate 5.5 Gy/min). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Genomic DNA preparations were subjected to competitive ELISA (Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay) for detection of 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodG) and dynamic light scattering (DLS) to monitor any radiation-induced damage. Single salivary gland cells were subjected to alkaline single cell gel electrophoresis (ASCGE), comet assay and pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) to check for DNA double-strand breaks. RESULTS: Results from all four experimental procedures confirmed damage of nucleobases and fragmentation of nuclear DNA immediately after radiation. Some 48 h after radiation exposure, modified 8-oxodG residues returned to basal level, homodispersity of genomic DNA reappeared, the length of comet tail regressed significantly (ASCGE) and PFGE pattern matched with that of high molecular weight unirradiated DNA. CONCLUSION: Chironomus ramosus larvae showed control of DNA damage as observed over 48 h in post irradiation recovery which could be attributed to their ability to tolerate gamma radiation stress.

Sequence-dependent variation in the reactivity of 8-Oxo-7,8-dihydro-2'-deoxyguanosine toward oxidation.

The goal of this study was to define the effect of DNA sequence on the reactivity of 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodG) toward oxidation. To this end, we developed a quadrupole/time-of-flight (QTOF) mass spectrometric method to quantify the reactivity of site specifically modified oligodeoxyribonucleotides with two model oxidants: nitrosoperoxycarbonate (ONOOCO(2)(-)), a chemical mediator of inflammation, and photoactivated riboflavin, a classical one-electron oxidant widely studied in mutagenesis and charge transport in DNA. In contrast to previous observations with guanine [ Margolin , Y. , ( 2006 ) Nat. Chem. Biol. 2 , 365 ], sequence context did not affect the reactivity of ONOOCO(2)(-) with 8-oxodG, but photosensitized riboflavin showed a strong sequence preference in its reactivity with the following order (8-oxodG = O): COA ≈ AOG > GOG ≥ COT > TOC > AOC. That the COA context was the most reactive was unexpected and suggests a new sequence context where mutation hotspots might occur. These results point to both sequence- and agent-specific effects on 8-oxodG oxidation.

Downregulation of Cockayne syndrome B protein reduces human 8-oxoguanine DNA glycosylase-1 expression and repair of UV radiation-induced 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2'-deoxyguanine.

Human 8-oxoguanine DNA glycosylase-1 (hOGG1) is the key DNA repair enzyme responsible for initiating repair of UV radiation-induced 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxo-dG). Previously we have shown that basal cells in human epidermis are particularly sensitive to UVA-mediated DNA damage probably due to low expression of hOGG1. Here we investigate some aspects of the regulatory role of Cockayne syndrome B (CSB) on hOGG1 expression and function. Cockayne syndrome B and hOGG1 genes were knocked down by miRNA technology in the HaCaT human keratinocyte cell line. Loss of the CSB gene decreased hOGG1 mRNA, and loss of hOGG1 increased CSB, indicating that they influence each other's expression. Protein levels were assessed in cells grown into engineered human skin using immunohistochemistry. This confirmed that CSB knockdown with miRNA reduced hOGG1 protein levels, but hOGG1 knockdown did not influence expression of CSB protein. Using comet assay we found that both hOGG1 and CSB knockdown reduced repair of both UVA- and UVB-induced 8-oxo-dG, consistent with CSB downregulation of hOGG1 mRNA and protein. In contrast, CSB but not hOGG1 knockdown reduced repair of UVB- and UVA-induced cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer photolesions. In engineered human skin, repair of UVA-induced 8-oxo-dG was inhibited by both hOGG1 and CSB knockdown, confirming the functional role of both proteins in cells with 3-D cellular contacts. These findings directly indicate that hOGG1 and CSB influence each other's expression. CSB is required for maintaining hOGG1 enzyme levels and function. Cockayne syndrome B could therefore be required for 8-oxo-dG repair due to its regulatory effect on hOGG1 expression. Cockayne syndrome B but not hOGG1 is also required for efficient repair of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers. Cockayne syndrome B regulation of DNA repair could contribute to the effect of UVA in causing mutations that lead to skin cancer in humans.

Highly fluorescent guanosine mimics for folding and energy transfer studies.

Guanosines with substituents at the 8-position can provide useful fluorescent probes that effectively mimic guanine residues even in highly demanding model systems such as polymorphic G-quadruplexes and duplex DNA. Here, we report the synthesis and photophysical properties of a small family of 8-substituted-2'-deoxyguanosines that have been incorporated into the human telomeric repeat sequence using phosphoramidite chemistry. These include 8-(2-pyridyl)-2'-deoxyguanosine (2PyG), 8-(2-phenylethenyl)-2'-deoxyguanosine (StG) and 8-[2-(pyrid-4-yl)-ethenyl]-2'-deoxyguanosine (4PVG). On DNA folding and stability, 8-substituted guanosines can exhibit context-dependent effects but were better tolerated by G-quadruplex and duplex structures than pyrimidine mismatches. In contrast to previously reported fluorescent guanine analogs, 8-substituted guanosines exhibit similar or even higher quantum yields upon their incorporation into nucleic acids (Φ = 0.02-0.45). We have used these highly emissive probes to quantify energy transfer efficiencies from unmodified DNA nucleobases to 8-substituted guanosines. The resulting DNA-to-probe energy transfer efficiencies (η(t)) are highly structure selective, with η(t)(duplex) < η(t)(single-strand) < η(t)(G-quadruplex). These trends were independent of the exact structural features and thermal stabilities of the G-quadruplexes or duplexes containing them. The combination of efficient energy transfer, high probe quantum yield, and high molar extinction coefficient of the DNA provides a highly sensitive and reliable readout of G-quadruplex formation even in highly diluted sample solutions of 0.25 nM.

Acceleration of guanine oxidation under visible light irradiation by photon upconversion based on triplet-triplet annihilation.

We report the fluorescent polymer complex which can show fluorescence emission at 380 nm with the excitation of 520 nm in aqueous media. This photon upconversion based on triplet-triplet annihilation can efficiently take place via inter-molecular energy transfers between the Ru complex as a sensitizer and anthracene molecules as an emitter captured into the water-soluble network polymers. We performed the oxidation reaction of 2'-deoxyguanosine by riboflavin in the presence of the polymer complex with the visible light irradiation. It was clearly indicated that oxidative decomposition can be accelerated by UV light generation via upconversion based on triplet-triplet annihilation.

Photo-switching of vinylpyrene-substituted 2'-deoxyguanosine and its application.

We synthesized C8-vinylpyrene-substituted 2'-deoxyguanosine (VPy)G and studied the photoinduced reversible E-Z isomerization. When E-isomer was irradiated with visible light (>420 nm), E- to Z-isomerization took place very rapidly, while upon irradiation with UV-light ( approximately 365 nm), Z-isomer was converted to E-isomer. When Z-isomer was illuminated with 365- 400 nm light, no fluorescence was observed, while E-isomer showed a very strong fluorescence emission, indicating that (VPy)G could be a useful fluorescence switching molecule.

Photo-controllable aptamer.

We have successfully developed a new method for photoregulation of G-quadruplex formation using cis-trans photoisomerization of the photochromic nucleobase (8FV)G. Our photo-controllable quadruplexes can be switched between a very stable quadruplex state and a non-structured state in a straightforward and reversible fashion. We also demonstrated reversibly control binding of a G-quadruplex aptamer to thrombin.

Memory impairment, oxidative damage and apoptosis induced by space radiation: ameliorative potential of alpha-lipoic acid.

Exposure to high-energy particle radiation (HZE) may cause oxidative stress and cognitive impairment in the same manner that seen in aged mice. This phenomenon has raised the concerns about the safety of an extended manned mission into deep space where a significant portion of the radiation burden would come from HZE particle radiation. The present study aimed at investigating the role of alpha-lipoic acid against space radiation-induced oxidative stress and antioxidant status in cerebellum and its correlation with cognitive dysfunction. We observed spontaneous motor activities and spatial memory task of mice using pyroelectric infrared sensor and programmed video tracking system, respectively. Whole body irradiation of mice with high-LET (56)Fe beams (500 MeV/nucleon, 1.5 Gy) substantially impaired the reference memory at 30 day post-irradiation; however, no significant effect was observed on motor activities of mice. Acute intraperitoneal treatment of mice with alpha-lipoic acid prior to irradiation significantly attenuated such memory dysfunction. Radiation-induced apoptotic damage in cerebellum was examined using a neuronal-specific terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated nick end-labeling method (NeuroTACS). Radiation-induced apoptotic and necrotic cell death of granule cells and Purkinje cells were inhibited significantly by alpha-lipoic acid pretreatment. Alpha-lipoic acid pretreatment exerted a very high magnitude of protection against radiation-induced augmentation of DNA damage (comet tail movement and serum 8-OHdG), lipid proxidation products (MDA+HAE) and protein carbonyls in mice cerebellum. Further, radiation-induced decline of non-protein sulfhydryl (NP-SH) contents of cerebellum and plasma ferric reducing power (FRAP) was also inhibited by alpha-lipoic acid pre-treatment. Results clearly indicate that alpha-lipoic acid is a potent neuroprotective antioxidant. Moreover, present finding also support the idea suggesting the cerebellar involvement in cognition.

(5'S)- and (5'R)-5',8-cyclo-2'-deoxyguanosine: mechanistic insights on the 2'-deoxyguanosin-5'-yl radical cyclization.

The two diastereomeric forms (5'S) and (5'R) of 5',8-cyclo-2'-deoxyguanosine have been synthesized and fully characterized. They have been used as references for the investigation of gamma-irradiation of 2'-deoxyguanosine and photolysis of 8-bromo-2'-deoxyguanosine in aqueous solutions. The observed (5'R)/(5'S) ratio of 8:1 was obtained in both sets of experiments. The mechanism of the cyclization reaction is discussed in some detail, and the diastereomeric outcome is rationalized in terms of favorable hydrogen-bonded structures in the pro-(5'R) conformation.

Increased levels of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine in Drosophila larval DNA after irradiation with 364-nm laser light but not with X-rays.

Exposure to UVA light causes damage to cellular components such as DNA and membrane lipids. We showed previously that UVA irradiation can induce mutations in Drosophila larvae and that the major lesions responsible for mutations were not thymidine dimers when wavelengths tested became longer. The use of a longer wavelength with UVA laser apparatus (364 nm) has made it possible to test the effects of this powerful light in biological organisms. In the present study, we irradiated third instar larvae of the urate-null Drosophila mutant strain y v ma-l, which is sensitive to oxidative stress, and compared the effects of 364 nm light irradiation with the effects of X-rays. To assay viability, some of the larvae were kept at 25 degrees C until they eclosed in order to obtain a measure of viability. The remaining larvae were used to measure the amount of 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), an indicator of oxidative DNA damage. The amount of 8-OHdG increased and viability decreased in response to increased UV dose in both the y v ma-l and wild-type strains. With irradiation of 600 kJ m(-2), 8-OHdG/10(6)dG was 7.2 +/- 3.2 and 6.2 +/- 2.0 in y v ma-l and wild-type strains, respectively, whereas the respective levels were 2.2 +/- 0.6 and 2.3 +/- 0.8 without irradiation. Our results indicated that irradiation with a 364-nm laser light caused significant oxidative damage in Drosophila larval DNA; however, induction of the damage was not prohibited by urate. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of a study in whole animals that shows increased levels of 8-OHdG in response to 364-nm UVA. X-ray ionizing radiation is also thought to generate reactive oxygen species in irradiated cells. We found that the amount of 8-OHdG in DNA following X-ray radiation remained unchanged in both strains, though survival rates were affected. X-ray-generated oxidative damage in Drosophila cells was followed by cell death but not DNA base oxidation, and the damage was suppressed by urate. The overall results suggest significant differences in the major in vivo oxidative damage caused by 364-nm light and X-rays.

Photo-induced hole transfer from base to sugar in DNA: relationship to primary radiation damage.

This work presents the hypothesis that photo-excitation of G.+ in DNA and model systems results in the same electronic states expected from direct ionization of the sugar phosphate backbone and that these states lead to specific sugar radicals on the DNA sugar phosphate backbone. As evidence we show that visible photo-excitation of guanine cation radicals (G.+) in the dinucleoside phosphate TpdG results in high yields (about 85%) of deoxyribose sugar radicals at the C1' and C3' sites. Further, we have calculated transition energies of hole transfer from G.+ in TpdG using time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) at the B3LYP/6-31G(d) level in gas phase as well as in a solvated environment. These calculations clearly predict that visible excitation of G.+ in TpdG causes transitions from only inner-shell filled molecular orbitals (MOs) to the singly occupied molecular orbital (SOMO) that effectively result in hole transfer from guanine either to the sugar phosphate backbone or to the adjacent base, thymine. The hole transfer is followed by rapid deprotonation from the sugar to form C1' and C3' radicals. These experimental and theoretical results are in agreement with our previously published experimental and theoretical results that photo-excitation of G.+ results in high yields of deoxyribose sugar radicals in DNA, guanine deoxyribonucleosides and deoxyribonucleotides. Photo-excitation of G.+ therefore provides a convenient method to produce and study sugar radicals that are expected to be formed in gamma-irradiated DNA systems unencumbered by the many other pathways involved in direct ionization.

Influence of chromatin structure and radical scavengers on yields of radiation-induced 8-oxo-dG and DNA strand breaks in cellular model systems.

Radiation-induced formation of 7,8-dihydro-8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxo-dG) and DNA strand breaks was studied in cultured cells with normal or modified chromatin structure. Human fibroblasts were irradiated as cellular monolayers (intact cells), nuclear monolayers (permeabilized cells with intact chromatin structure), and nucleoid monolayers (permeabilized and salt-treated cells with histone-free DNA). 8-oxo-dG was assayed with reverse-phase HPLC coupled to an electrochemical detector and strand breaks with the alkali unwinding assay. Depletion of low-molecular-weight nuclear components increased the radiation-induced formation of 8-oxo-dG fivefold compared to twofold for the formation of strand breaks. Removal of both low-molecular-weight components and histones increased the yield of 8-oxo-dG 46-fold and the yield of strand breaks 43-fold. Removal of only the histones thus leads to a two times greater increase in the yield of strand breaks compared to 8-oxo-dG. Addition of radical scavengers to nuclear and nucleoid monolayers provided a significantly better protection against the formation of 8-oxo-dG relative to the formation of strand breaks. These results suggest that in intact cells, 8-oxo-dG is preferentially formed in histone-free structures of chromatin, indicating a larger role for the indirect effect of radiation in the formation of 8-oxo-dG than in the formation of strand breaks.

Excited state enantiodifferentiating interactions between a chiral benzophenone derivative and nucleosides.

Time-resolved measurements using nanosecond laser flash photolysis have revealed significant enantiodifferentiation in the interaction between ketoprofen (a chiral benzophenone derivative) and two relevant nucleosides, namely, thymidine and 2'-deoxyguanosine. In both cases, the highest quenching rate constants have been observed for (R)-ketoprofen, the enantiomer with lower pharmacological activity. Photoproduct studies performed in the case of thymidine suggest that the enantiodifferentiating process corresponds to a Paterno-Büchi reaction, leading to the formation of oxetanes. With 2'-deoxyguanosine, the quenching is associated with an electron-transfer process monitored through the generation of a ketyl radical.

Extracellular 8-oxo-dG as a sensitive parameter for oxidative stress in vivo and in vitro.

8-Oxo-7,8-dihydro-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxo-dG) is one of the mutagenic base modifications produced in DNA by the reaction of reactive oxygen species. The biological significance of 8-oxo-dG is shown by the existence of repair pathways that are able to recognize and remove this lesion from both DNA and the nucleotide pool. The final outcome of these evolutionarily conserved repair mechanisms in man is excretion of 8-oxo-dG/8-oxo-Gua from the intracellular to extracellular milieu including the blood plasma and urine. The aim of this investigation was to establish dose response relations for radiation-induced appearance of extracellular 8-oxo-dG in cellular model systems. Here we report on excretion of 8-oxo-dG after in vitro irradiation of whole blood and isolated lymphocytes with clinically relevant doses. We find that this excretion is dependent on dose and individual repair capacity, and that it saturates above doses of 0.5-1 Gy of gamma radiation. Our data also suggest that the nucleotide pool is a significant target that contributes to the levels of extracellular 8-oxo-dG; hence the mutagenic target for oxidative stress is not limited to the DNA molecule only. We conclude that extracellular 8-oxo-dG levels after in vitro irradiation have a potential to be used as a sensitive marker for oxidative stress.

A study on the bacterial photo-toxicity of phenothiazinium based photosensitisers.

"Comet assay" showed light activated (3.15 Jcm-2 over 30 min) phenothiazinium based photosensitisers (PhBPs) to induce photo-damage of Staphylococcus aureus DNA, as indicated by DNA "tails" between 80 and 120 microm. In general, PhBPs exhibited significant singlet oxygen yields (Phi(DeltaPhBP)>0.7), suggesting the use of type II mechanisms of photo-oxidation. However, the photodynamic action of PhBPs on DNA showed generally insignificant production of 7,8-dihydro-8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine, normally a major product of type II DNA photo-oxidation. These combined results show DNA to be a major site of action of PhBPs and suggest that this action may involve type II attack on a nucleoside(s) other than guanosine.

Resveratrol enhances UVA-induced DNA damage in HaCaT human keratinocytes.

Resveratrol, a polyphenolic phytoalexin, is a very effective antioxidant that also exhibits strong antiproliferative and anti-inflammatory properties. Recent studies have provided support for the use of resveratrol in human cancer chemoprevention, in combination with either chemotherapeutic drugs or cytotoxic factors for a most efficient treatment of drug refractory tumor cells. Resveratrol is also widely used in topical preparations, as a chemoprotective compound against development of several cutaneous disorders, including skin cancer. Nevertheless, the combined effect of resveratrol and UVA irradiation on cellular toxicity and DNA damage has never been assessed. The aim of this work was to investigate the effect of resveratrol on cell fate in immortalized human keratinocytes HaCaT cells. The results indicated that resveratrol potentiates the production of significant amounts of 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2'-deoxyguanosine in UVA-irradiated genomic DNA. Moreover, the combination of resveratrol with UVA significantly enhances the induction of DNA strand breaks and cell death in HaCaT keratinocytes. The conclusion is a potential hazardous effect of topical application of resveratrol, particularly on regions exposed to sunlight.

Radiation-chemical properties of the hypoxic cell radiosensitizer doranidazole (PR-350).

This study was performed to confirm the radiation-chemical properties of the 2-nitroimidazole derivative doranidazole, (+/-)-(2RS,3SR)-3-[(2-nitroimdazol-1-yl)-methoxy]butane-1,2,4-triol [CAS 137339-64-1], PR-350, which was synthesized as a hypoxic cell radiosensitizer with low toxicity. Radiation-chemical experiments using doranidazole showed that (1) unlike O2, it had high reactivity toward not only hydrated electrons (eaq-), but also hydroxyl radicals (.OH), (2) the reduced intermediates of doranidasole had no ability to induce immediate strand breaks of colE1 plasmid DNA, (3) doranidazole enhanced radiation-induced DNA strand breaks of colE1 plasmid DNA in the aqueous state, whereas it did not enhance the base alteration, such as 8-oxo-deoxyguanosine, (4) it enhanced the radiation-induced formation of strand breaks with 3'-phosophate and 3'-phosphoglycolate termini, and (5) it was bound to DNA after irradiation. These facts revealed that the majority of radiation-chemical properties of doranidazole, except for the high reactivity toward OH, were similar to those of oxygen.

Adequate intakes of vitamin E and protein prevent increases of oxidative damage to DNA, lipids, and protein induced by total body irradiation in mice.

We examined the influence of the level of dietary protein or vitamin E (VE) on oxidative damage to DNA, lipids, and protein in the liver after total body irradiation (TBI) with X-rays at 1 or 4 Gy. Levels of 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine, thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, and protein carbonyls in the liver did not differ among the groups that did not receive TBI. However, oxidative damage to lipids and protein was increased by TBI only in the 1% protein group. DNA damage, lipid peroxidation, or protein oxidation in the liver was increased by TBI in a dose-dependent manner, and the damage was consistently higher in the 1% than in the 20% protein group. In the 1% protein group, a greater decrease in relative spleen weight by TBI was also observed. Concentrations of antioxidants (vitamins C and E and glutathione) in the liver were lower and the concentration of nonheme iron in the liver was higher in the 1% than in the 20% protein group. Mice fed a 1% protein diet became susceptible to TBI-induced oxidative damage, and decreases in antioxidant levels and an increase in iron level were involved in the mechanism of this susceptibility. These results suggest that dietary VE and protein can prevent oxidative damage to DNA, lipid, and protein in mice subjected to TBI. Consumption of a VE-free diet significantly increased 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine levels in DNA from mice fed the 1% protein diet with TBI, but such changes were not detected in DNA from mice fed the 20% protein diet.

Photooxidative damage of guanine in DG and DNA by the radicals derived from the alpha cleavage of the electronically excited carbonyl products generated in the thermolysis of alkoxymethyl-substituted dioxetanes and the photolysis of alkoxyacetones.

On thermolysis of the methoxy (MeO-TMD), tert-butoxy (tBuO-TMD), and hydroxy (HO-TMD) derivatives of 3,3,4,4-tetramethyl-1,2-dioxetane (TMD) in the presence of dG and calf-thymus DNA, the guanine is oxidized considerably more efficiently than the parent TMD. The same trend in the oxidative reactivity is observed for the photolysis of the corresponding oxy-substituted ketones versus acetone. The oxidative reactivity order in the dioxetane thermolysis, as well as in the ketone photolysis, parallels the ability of the excited ketones to release radicals (determined by spin trapping with DMPO and EPR spectroscopy) upon alpha cleavage (Norrish-type-I reaction). In the presence of molecular oxygen, the carbon-centered radicals are scavenged to produce peroxyl radicals, which are proposed as the reactive species in the oxidation of the guanine in dG and calf-thymus DNA.