Retropharyngeal lipostructure in the treatment of velopharyngeal insufficiency: A prospective study and update.

INTRODUCTION: Retropharyngeal lipostructure is a recent procedure in velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI), offering an effective alternative to heavier surgery. OBJECTIVES: To update and assess retropharyngeal lipostructure as a treatment for VPI in the University Hospital Center of Rouen (France). TYPE OF STUDY: Single-center prospective study, from May 2012 to May 2014. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Six patients (4 girls, 2 boys) presenting with VPI were treated by retropharyngeal lipostructure. Age at surgery ranged between 6 and 12 years. Four of the patients bore a 22q11 microdeletion. Treatment was indicated in case of Borel-Maisonny type 2b (n=2) or 2m (n=4) despite well-conducted speech therapy and of≥50% velopharyngeal sphincter closure on nasal endoscopy. Patients were assessed preoperatively and at 3 months, by a multidisciplinary team. Borel-Maisonny type was assessed by a speech therapist. Nasality was measured on assisted vocal evaluation (EVA®). Sphincter closure was assessed on dynamic MRI. RESULTS: Between 6 and 8cm3autologous fat was injected. At 3months, 4 children showed 1-grade improvement in Borel-Maisonny type. Nasality decreased systematically, from a mean 14.5% preoperatively to 10.5% postoperatively. MRI showed improvement in all cases, with complete closure in occlusive vowels in 3 children. CONCLUSION: EVA® and MRI provide precise objective assessment of VPI. Retropharyngeal lipostructure is a simple, relatively non-invasive, reproducible technique, providing good results in VPI.

22q11.2 Deletion: Surgical and Speech Outcomes of Patients With Velopharyngeal Insufficiency Treated With a Superiorly Based Pharyngeal Flap as the Primary Surgery.

The most frequent palate diagnoses in patients with chromosome 22q11.2 deletion syndrome are a classic submucous cleft, occult, and velopharyngeal insufficiency without cleft, which generates alterations in speech that require surgery. Surgical protocols are controversial owing to syndrome characteristics that make their handling more complex. Pharyngeal flap pharyngoplasty is effective for this type of patient. The objective of this study is to examine the surgical management of velopharyngeal insufficiency in patients with chromosome 22 deletion, using a pharyngeal flap as the primary surgery. The clinical records of patients with chromosome 22 deletion and velopharyngeal insufficiency between 2015 and 2017 were analyzed retrospectively. Eight patients underwent pharyngeal flap pharyngoplasty as a primary surgery, including 1 with velopharyngeal insufficiency without a cleft, 1 with a classic submucous cleft, and 6 with occult submucous cleft. The pre- and postoperative protocol performed by speech therapists and surgeons included clinical evaluation of the oral cavity; perceptual, video recording, and nasometry speech evaluation; and videonasopharyngoscopy. All perceptual parameters and nasometry results significantly changed. Of the cases, 88% achieved a flap with the expected width and height and complete closure of the velopharyngeal sphincter. One patient required flap revision. Four of the 8 patients achieved normal resonance, and 2 of 8 showed mild hypernasality. Using the pharyngeal flap pharyngoplasty as a primary technique to correct velopharyngeal insufficiency in patients with chromosome 22 deletion provides satisfactory outcomes and decreases the number of surgeries. Preoperative planning must be conducted carefully and needs to be individualized to be successful.

State of the Art in Treating Velopharyngeal Dysfunction.

Velopharyngeal dysfunction (VPD) is a condition that can greatly impact a child's quality of life. The initial evaluation and workup of patients presenting with VPD is generally straightforward, consisting of history taking and physical examination, perceptual speech analysis, and objective techniques such as nasometry and speech endoscopy. However, there is no standardized treatment option. Multiple surgical and nonsurgical techniques have been described, all with varying approaches to correction of the defect and similarly, with varying risks and outcomes. We aim to provide an overview of this condition and available treatment options, as well as highlight recent updates in management, including the use of cine magnetic resonance imaging, new injectable options for pharyngeal augmentation, and the evolving role of robotic surgery. We also discuss techniques to facilitate teaching during oropharyngeal surgery and our approach to revision surgical planning.

The Effect of Loudness Variation on Velopharyngeal Function in Children with 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome: A Pilot Study.

OBJECTIVE: Children with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22qDS) often require surgical intervention to treat velopharyngeal dysfunction (VPD). Although some studies have documented improved velopharyngeal (VP) closure under increased speaking effort, currently no studies have examined the effect of similar behavioral speech modifications on VP closure in children with 22qDS. The purpose of this pilot study was to explore the effect of loudness on VP closure during speech in children with 22qDS and persisting VPD. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Four children with 22qDS, posterior pharyngeal flap, and persisting mild VPD underwent pressure-flow testing while repeating words at habitual and increased loudness levels. Using a single-subject A-B design, descriptive statistics and graphical measures were used to examine differences in VP orifice area (VPA) and timing of closure in the habitual versus loud condition. RESULTS: Results were mixed. Median VPA decreased during some stimuli for 3 participants, but increased for 1 subject when speaking louder. Median duration of nasal airflow decreased for 3 participants in the loud condition. CONCLUSION: This study presents preliminary aerodynamic data regarding the plasticity of VP physiology in the 22qDS group. Further research is needed to determine how loudness impacts VP function in children with 22qDS.

Temporal characteristics of nasalization in Persian speaker children with and without cleft palate.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to measure and compare temporal patterns of nasalization in Persian children with and without cleft palate in three vowel contexts. METHODS: A Sample of 14 children with repaired cleft palates with or without cleft lip with moderate to severe hyper nasality and 14 children without cleft palate was chosen as subjects. The subjects were chosen from the ages of 4 to 12 years. The nasal onset interval, nasal offset interval and total nasalization duration were obtained from acoustic waveforms and spectrograms in three vowel contexts using Praat Software. For eliminating the effect of different speed of speech in the cleft palate group and control group, the ratio of nasalization duration was calculated. RESULTS: Total nasalization duration are demonstrated by acoustic signals which shows the total significant different temporal patterns in children with cleft palate and without cleft palate and across the vowel contexts (P<0.000). CONCLUSIONS: Longer nasalization durations in children with cleft palate in comparison to children without cleft palate show the delayed or deviant temporal patterns in children with cleft palate. The duration of nasalization reflecting temporal patterns of the oral-nasal acoustic impedance in children with cleft palate may have an influence on the perception of hyper nasality.

Videoendoscopic diagnosis for predicting the response to oral appliance therapy in severe obstructive sleep apnea.

PURPOSE: In treatment for obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), oral appliance (OA) therapy is indicated in patients with mild-moderate OSA. However, since patients with severe OSA in whom OA therapy was effective have also been reported, it may not be possible to determine indications for OA therapy based on the severity alone. The purpose of this study was to determine indications for OA therapy using endoscopy during wakefulness in patients with severe OSA. METHODS: The subjects consisted of 36 patients (27 males and 9 females) diagnosed with severe OSA using all-night polysomnography. In each patient, a nasoendoscope was inserted in a horizontal position during nasal breathing, and morphological changes in the airway of the velopharynx and oro-hypopharynx with mandibular advancement were evaluated. RESULTS: With mandibular advancement, the oro-hypopharynx was widened in all patients while the velopharynx was widened in 29 patients, but not in 7. The apnea hypopnea index (AHI) reduction rate after OA application was 79.8% (SD, 13.0%) in the group with and 40.6% (SD, 27.0%) in the group without velopharyngeal widening, being significantly different between the two groups. In the group showing velopharyngeal widening, evaluation of the direction of widening revealed two types: the "all-round type", which is circumferential widening in the anteroposterior-lateral directions, and the "lateral dominant type", which is widening mainly in the lateral direction. The AHI reduction rate was 80.1% (SD, 15.0%) for the all-round type and 79.3% (SD, 10.6%) for the lateral dominant type showing no significant difference. DISCUSSION: (1) Concerning indications for OA therapy, findings in the velopharynx rather than those in the hypopharynx may be important. (2) The effects of OA therapy can be expected in the presence of velopharyngeal widening irrespective of its direction. Thus, to determine whether OA therapy is indicated, endoscopic evaluation of morphological changes in the velopharynx with mandibular advancement may be important.

The combination of anatomy and physiology in predicting the outcomes of velopharyngeal surgery.

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS: To explore whether the variables resulting from anatomical and physiological examinations can be combined to predict the outcomes of velopharyngeal surgery for obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). STUDY DESIGN: Prospective design with a retrospective review. METHODS: A total of 119 patients with OSA received velopharyngeal surgery, including revised uvulopalatopharyngoplasty with uvula preservation and transpalatal advancement pharyngoplasty. The preoperative examinations of these patients, including polysomnography (PSG), physical examination, and three-dimensional computer tomography (3-D CT), were obtained for analysis. RESULTS: The overall success rate was 62.2%. Three factors were found to be predictive in treatment outcomes (P<0.05). These were tonsil size, the percentage of time with oxygen saturation below 90% (CT90), and the vertical distance between the lower edge of the mandible and the lower edge of the hyoid (MH). After changing CT90 and MH into level variables, another regression analysis was performed and the result suggested that all three level variables could be included. A scoring system was then created based on these three variables and their odds ratio values. The total scores of all patients were calculated by the following equation: Total score=2.7 tonsil size (score)+2.2 CT90 (score)+1.6 MH (score). The differences in success rates among patients with total scores of <14, 14 to 17, 17 to 22, and ≥22 were all significant (P<0.05). CONCLUSION: The anatomy of the pharynx and the physiology of OSA are both important in deciding outcomes of velopharyngeal surgery. Variables that could represent these two aspects can be combined to better guide patient selections. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 4.

Velopharyngeal and choanal stenosis after radiotherapy for nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

Choanal stenosis is a well recognized late complication of radiotherapy for nasopharyngeal carcinoma. However velopharyngeal stenosis post radiotherapy for nasopharyngeal carcinoma is rare. We present here a case of bilateral choanal stenosis and velopharyngeal stenosis in a patient treated with radiotherapy for nasopharyngeal carcinoma. A 58-year-old woman presented to our otolaryngology clinic with a one year history of nasal obstruction. She was diagnosed to have nasopharyngeal carcinoma 12 years ago for which she received radiotherapy. Clinical examination revealed bilateral choanal stenosis and velopharyngeal stenosis. Treatment of choanal stenosis and velopharyngeal stenosis is challenging due to high incidence of recurrence and patients frequently require multiple procedures. The patient underwent a transnasal endoscopic excision of velopharyngeal scar tissue and widening of posterior choana using Surgitron®, mitomycin-C applied topically to the surgical wound and bilateral stenting under general anesthesia. The stents were kept for two weeks, and 3 years post operation velopharyngeal aperture and posterior choana remained patent. As illustrated in this case velopharyngeal stenosis can occur after radiotheraphy and should not be overlooked. Combine modality of transnasal endoscopic excision of velopharyngeal scar tissue, widening of choanal stenosis with Surgitron® followed by the application of mitomycin-C and stenting has been shown to be an effective option.

[Methodological aspects of high resolution manometry of the pharynx and upper esophageal sphincter]. / Methodologische Aspekte zur Hochauflösungsmanometrie des Pharynx und des oberen Ösophagussphinkters.

BACKGROUND: High resolution manometry (HRM) is used increasingly to investigate muscular functions of the pharynx and the upper esophageal sphincter (UES) during swallowing. Beside the use of different manometry systems and catheters the ways in which parameters are calculated differ greatly among studies. The aim of this study was to present and compare these parameters and show which difficulties need to still be overcome. METHOD: A selective literature search in PubMed was performed. Only those studies were included which explained in detail how each of the swallowing parameters was obtained. The parameters are presented using our own HRM-data and different ways of evaluation are discussed. RESULTS: The dynamic opening of the UES, the proceeding of the pressure wave, the functioning of the velopharynx and the tongue base region are of interest when evaluating swallowing function. Minimum and maximum pressures, time intervals, average pressures, pressure gradients, pressure integrals and anatomical parameters are used to describe functioning of these regions. CONCLUSION: In order to compare the data collected with HRM-systems, it is necessary to consider catheter specifications, the manometry system involved and also how exactly swallowing parameters were evaluated. It would be helpful to include analysis strategies in the producers software in order to make HRM studies comparable. Moreover, a consensus has to be reached regarding study protocols and which parameters should be collected in order to differentiate normal form pathological swallows.

Anatomy and physiology of the velopharyngeal mechanism.

Understanding the normal anatomy and physiology of the velopharyngeal mechanism is the first step in providing appropriate diagnosis and treatment for children born with cleft lip and palate. The velopharyngeal mechanism consists of a muscular valve that extends from the posterior surface of the hard palate (roof of mouth) to the posterior pharyngeal wall and includes the velum (soft palate), lateral pharyngeal walls (sides of the throat), and the posterior pharyngeal wall (back wall of the throat). The function of the velopharyngeal mechanism is to create a tight seal between the velum and pharyngeal walls to separate the oral and nasal cavities for various purposes, including speech. Velopharyngeal closure is accomplished through the contraction of several velopharyngeal muscles including the levator veli palatini, musculus uvulae, superior pharyngeal constrictor, palatopharyngeus, palatoglossus, and salpingopharyngeus. The tensor veli palatini is thought to be responsible for eustachian tube function.

Types and causes of velopharyngeal dysfunction.

The velopharyngeal valve is responsible for production of oral speech sounds. There are three components to normal velopharyngeal function: anatomy, physiology, and learning. velopharyngeal dysfunction (VPD) is a condition where the velopharyngeal valve does not close consistently and completely during the production of oral sounds. Velopharyngeal dysfunction can be caused by abnormal anatomy (velopharyngeal insufficiency), abnormal neurophysiology (velopharyngeal incompetence), or particular articulation errors (velopharyngeal mislearning). The purpose of this article is to acquaint the reader with what is required for normal velopharyngeal function. In addition, there will be a discussion of the types of velopharyngeal dysfunction and various causes of each. Implications for treatment and prognosis will be discussed.

Velopharyngeal valving during speech, in patients with velocardiofacial syndrome and patients with non-syndromic palatal clefts after surgical and speech pathology management.

BACKGROUND: Velocardiofacial syndrome (VCFS) is the most common genetic syndrome associated with cleft palate. There are reports describing several anomalies associated with the palatal cleft in patients with VCFS, which can affect the characteristics of the velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI) in these cases. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to assess velopharyngeal sphincter function during speech, using videonasopharyngoscopy (VNP) and videofluoroscopy (VF), in patients with VCFS, as compared with patients with non-syndromic palatal clefts (NSCP). MATERIAL AND METHOD: Twenty patients with VCFS corroborated by a FISH test were studied. All patients showed a palatal cleft. All patients had received previous management including speech therapy and palatal repair. These patients underwent a thorough clinical speech evaluation, including VNP and VF. Twenty patients with NSCP matched by sex, type of cleft and within the age range of the patients with VCFS were studied as controls. RESULTS: From the patients with VCFS, seventeen patients showed a submucous cleft palate. Three patients showed sub-total cleft of the secondary palate. Fourteen patients (70%) showed a coronal velopharyngeal closure pattern. Six patients (30%) showed a circular pattern. In contrast, 10 patients (50%) from the NSCP group showed a circular pattern, two of them showed a Passavant's ridge. Seven patients (35%) showed a coronal pattern and 3 patients (15%) showed a saggital pattern. Mean velum (V) and lateral pharyngeal wall (LPW) motion were significantly decreased in patients with VCFS (V=46% vs 71%; LPW=14% vs 30%; P<0.001). Size of the defect during speech was significantly increased in patients with VCFS (34.57% vs 67.37%; P<0.001). CONCLUSION: Velopharyngeal valving during speech is significantly different in patients with VCFS as compared with patients with NSCP. Several anomalies associated with the palatal cleft in patients with VCFS can explain these differences. Thus, the surgical approach for repairing a palatal cleft should consider these differences. Moreover, surgical planning should be performed according to the specific findings of the velopharyngeal sphincter in order to improve speech outcome.

[Videofluoroscopic evaluation of adenoid hypertrophy and velopharyngeal closure during speech]. / Videofluoroscopia para evaluación de hipertrofia adenoidea y cierre velofaríngeo durante el habla.

BACKGROUND: Adenoid hypertrophy is a common cause of upper airway obstruction in children. Traditionally, adenoid size has been evaluated using a conventional lateral skull film. Flexible endoscopy is now the gold standard for the evaluation of the upper airway. In small children, this study is not always adequately tolerated. OBJECTIVE: Determine specificity and sensitivity of videofluoroscopy for evaluating adenoid size and velopharyngeal closure during speech, as compared with lateral skull film, using videonasopharyngoscopy as gold standard. METHODS: Prospective study analyzing 70 patients with clinical data of upper airway obstruction, ages 5-10 years old. Videofluoroscopy, videonasopharyngoscopy, and lateral skull film were performed in all cases. Patients were divided into children with and without adenoid hypertrophy. Specificity, sensitivity, and predictive values were calculated. Also, data concerning comfort during the three procedures were obtained. RESULTS: Videofluoroscopy showed sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 93%. Lateral skull film showed sensitivity of 70% and specificity of 52%. A Spearman correlation coefficient demonstrated a significant correlation (p < 0.05) between videofluoroscopy and videonasopharyngoscopy. A non-significant correlation was found between lateral skull film and videonasopharyngoscopy. Parents or legal guardians considered the lateral skull film as a comfortable procedure. Seventy-one percent of the parents considered videofluoroscopy as a comfortable procedure and 29% reported "mild discomfort". Ten percent evaluated videonasopharyngoscopy as "extremely uncomfortable". The rest reported "minor" and "moderate" discomforts. CONCLUSIONS: Videofluoroscopy seems a reliable method without serious complications for evaluating adenoid hypertrophy and velopharyngeal closure in children,besides being a well-tolerated procedure.

A simple technique for determining velopharyngeal status during speech production.

Clinical evaluation of velopharyngeal function relies heavily on auditory perceptual judgments that can be supported by instrumental examination of the velopharyngeal valve. Many of the current instrumental techniques are difficult to interpret, expensive, and/or unavailable to clinicians. Proposed in this report is a minimally invasive and inexpensive approach to evaluating velopharyngeal function that has been used successfully in our laboratory for several potentially difficult-to-test clients. The technique is an aeromechanical approach that involves the sensing of nasal ram pressure (N-RamP), a local pressure sensed at the anterior nares, using a two-pronged nasal cannula. By monitoring the N-RamP signal, it is possible to determine the status of the velopharyngeal port (open or closed) during speech production. Four case examples are presented to support its clinical value.

Cleft palate repair: velopharyngeal closure before and during the basal tone.

UNLABELLED: Patients with palatine fissure have inadequate velopharyngeal closure (VPC), with consequent vocal hypernasality which can be reduced by a basal tone. AIM: To compare VPC during a basal tone with the emission of a modal recording, in patients with repaired post-foramen palatine fissure. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Case study with four adult men, all with repaired post-foramen palatine fissure. VPC images through nasal-pharyngoscopy during the emission o f the [a] vowel in a modal and basal recording. The images were studied by four ENTs. RESULTS: In three subjects there was no change in the type of VPC considering the recordings analyzed; the changes which happened to most of the subjects are associated only to the degree of movement of the structures involved, since in the basal recording the movement of the laryngeal lateral walls was kept, the movement of the posterior pharyngeal wall stabilized, the movement of the palatine veil was mildly reduced, and the Passavant fold was evident. CONCLUSIONS: The type of VPC was kept in the four subjects analyzed, when we compared the modal and basal recordings, there was a modification in the degree of movements in the structures involved, making it clear the Passavant Fold.

Fissura palatina reparada: fechamento velofaríngeo antes e durante o som basal / Cleft palate repair: velopharyngeal closure before and during the basal tone

Portadores de fissura palatina apresentam inadequado fechamento velofaríngeo (FVF), com consequente hipernasalidade vocal que pode ser diminuída com o som basal. OBJETIVO: Comparar o FVF durante a realização do som basal com a emissão em registro modal, em pacientes com fissura palatina pós-forame reparada. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Estudo de Casos com quatro homens adultos, portadores de fissura palatina pós-forame reparada. Imagens do FVF por nasofaringoscopia, durante a emissão da vogal [a] em registro modal e basal. Julgamento das imagens realizado por quatro otorrinolaringologistas. RESULTADOS: Em três sujeitos, não houve mudança no tipo de FVF entre os registros analisados; as modificações que ocorreram na maioria dos sujeitos referem-se apenas ao grau de movimentação das estruturas envolvidas, pois, em registro basal, o movimento das paredes laterais da faringe se manteve, o movimento da parede posterior da faringe estabilizou, o movimento do véu palatino diminuiu discretamente, e a Prega de Passavant se evidenciou. CONCLUSÕES: O tipo de FVF se manteve em três dos quatro sujeitos analisados, quando comparado o registro modal com o basal, havendo modificações no grau da movimentação das estruturas envolvidas, evidenciando a Prega de Passavant.

Patients with palatine fissure have inadequate velopharyngeal closure (VPC), with consequent vocal hypernasality which can be reduced by a basal tone. AIM: to compare VPC during a basal tone with the emission of a modal recording, in patients with repaired post-foramen palatine fissure. MATERIALS AND METHODS: case study with four adult men, all with repaired post-foramen palatine fissure. VPC images through nasal-pharyngoscopy during the emission o f the [a] vowel in a modal and basal recording. The images were studied by four ENTs. RESULTS: in three subjects there was no change in the type of VPC considering the recordings analyzed; the changes which happened to most of the subjects are associated only to the degree of movement of the structures involved, since in the basal recording the movement of the laryngeal lateral walls was kept, the movement of the posterior pharyngeal wall stabilized, the movement of the palatine veil was mildly reduced, and the Passavant fold was evident. CONCLUSIONS: The type of VPC was kept in the four subjects analyzed, when we compared the modal and basal recordings, there was a modification in the degree of movements in the structures involved, making it clear the Passavant Fold.

Blowing ratio as an evaluation tool for velopharyngeal function after oral and oropharyngeal cancer resection.

BACKGROUND: Our objective was to evaluate the value of the blowing test to measure the speech and swallowing function after resection of oral or oropharyngeal cancer. METHODS: Speech and swallowing functions of the patients after surgical resection of oral or oropharyngeal cancer were assessed by a speech intelligibility test, blowing time, questionnaires, and oropharyngeal pressures. Blowing time (pressure) ratio was determined by dividing blowing time (pressure) with open nose by blowing time (pressure) with closed nose. RESULTS: Blowing time ratio had significant correlation with blowing pressure ratio (p = .014), score of speech intelligibility test (p = .0014), questionnaire for aspiration (p = .029), nasopharyngeal backflow (CC = 0.676, p = .032), amount of food to swallow (p = .037), and oropharyngeal pressure during swallowing (p = .024). CONCLUSION: The present results demonstrated the value of blowing time ratio as a simple objective tool for speech and swallowing ability related to velopharyngeal function after resection of oral and oropharyngeal cancers.

Radial forearm-palmaris longus tenocutaneous free flap; implication in the repair of the moderate-sized postoncologic soft palate defect.

BACKGROUND: Moderate resection of the soft palate results in suboptimal outcomes in terms of postoperative velopharyngeal function. We propose the radial forearm tenocutaneous free flap incorporating the palmaris longus tendon for reconstruction of the levator sling in these cases. METHODS: Twenty-six patients underwent reconstruction with this method. Group I defect involved up to one-fourth of the soft palate. Group II defect involved up to one-half of the soft palate whether or not including the uvula. Group III defect involved more than three-fourths of the soft palate. Postoperative function was assessed by means of speech intelligibility, swallowing performance, nasalance score, and nasoendoscopy. RESULTS: Groups I and II showed normal results for speech intelligibility and swallowing function at 44 months. In group III, both parameters proved to be suboptimal. CONCLUSIONS: Moderate-sized soft palatal resection cases (group II) benefited most from this particular method of dynamic reconstruction using the radial forearm tenocutaneous free flap.

Structural and functional causes of hypernasality in velocardiofacial syndrome. A pilot study.

OBJECTIVE: Hypernasality in velocardiofacial syndrome (VCFS) is more severe, persistent, and difficult to manage compared to other populations with cleft palate or velopharyngeal (VP) dysfunction. This pilot study investigated why children with VCFS have more severe hypernasality. METHODS: Pressure-flow methodology indirectly measured VP orifice size and VP closure timing during speech in a group of 5 children with VCFS, 5 children with cleft palate, and 6 normal children. RESULTS: Children with VCFS demonstrated significant differences in VP closure timing and hypernasality. There were no significant group differences in VP orifice size. Duration of nasal airflow was the strongest predictor of judgments of hypernasality. CONCLUSION: This study provides preliminary evidence that VP closure timing may account for the more severe hypernasality in children with VCFS, compared to structural factors alone.