Preparation and characterization of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare miller) essential oil/hydroxypropyl-ß-cyclodextrin inclusion complex and its application for chilled pork preservation.

Fennel essential oil (FEO) a natural spice that has versatile biological activities. However, the direct use of FEO is limited due to its water insolubility and poor stability. Chilled pork is prone to spoilage during storage. To solve these problems, this study aimed to prepare an inclusion complex (IC) of FEO with hydroxypropyl-ß-cyclodextrin via co-precipitation and apply it to the preservation of chilled pork. Results indicated that the optimal parameters were encapsulating temperature 37 °C, wall-core ratio 14:1 g/mL, stirring speed 600 r/min, and encapsulating time 240 min, obtaining an encapsulation efficiency of 83.75%. The results of scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance demonstrated the successful preparation of IC. The release of FEO from IC was controllable through adjusting the different temperatures and relative humidities. Furthermore, IC effectively delayed the spoilage of chilled pork and extended its shelf life by 6 days at 4 °C.

Chemical composition and biological activities of essential oils of seven Cultivated Apiaceae species.

The Apiaceae family contains many species used as food, spice and medicinal purposes. Different parts of plants including seeds could be used to obtain essential (EO) oils from members of the Apiaceae family. In the present study, EOs were components obtained through hydrodistillation from the seeds of anise (Pimpinella anisum), carrot (Daucus carota), celery (Apium graveolens), dill (Anethum graveolens), coriander (Coriandrum sativum), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), and cumin (Cuminum cyminum). EO constituents were determined with Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) and Gas Chromatography/Flame Ionization Detector (GC-FID) and their antioxidant capacities were determined with the cupric reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate (DPPH) methods. The antimicrobial activity of EOs were tested against four pathogenic bacteria. Phenylpropanoids in anise (94.87%) and fennel (92.52%), oxygenated monoterpenes in dill (67.59%) and coriander (98.96%), monoterpene hydrocarbons in celery (75.42%), mono- (45.42%) and sesquiterpene- (43.25%) hydrocarbons in carrots, monoterpene hydrocarbon (34.30%) and aromatic hydrocarbons (32.92%) in cumin were the major compounds in the EOs. Anethole in anise and fennel, carotol in carrot, limonene in celery, carvone in dill, linalool in coriander, and cumin aldehyde in cumin were predominant compounds in these EOs. The high hydrocarbon content in cumin EO gave high CUPRAC activity (89.07 µmol Trolox g-1), and the moderate monoterpene hydrocarbon and oxygenated monoterpene content in dill EO resulted in higher DPPH activity (9.86 µmol Trolox g-1). The in vitro antibacterial activity of EOs against Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli was evaluated using the agar diffusion method and the minimum bactericidal concentration was determined. Coriander, cumin and dill EOs showed inhibitory effect against all tested strains except P. aeruginosa. While fennel and celery EOs were effective against E. coli and B. cereus strains, respectively, anise and carrot EOs did not show any antibacterial effect against the tested bacteria. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) produced four groups based on EO constituents of seven species. The potential adoption of the cultivated Apiaceae species for EO extraction could be beneficial for the wild species that are endangered by over collection and consumption.

Cananga odorata L., Illicium verum, and Foeniculum vulgare essential oils impair the reproduction of the cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus (Acari: Ixodidae).

This study aimed to evaluate the acaricidal potential of the essential oils of Cananga odorata L. (ylang-ylang), Illicium verum (star anise), and Foeniculum vulgare (sweet fennel) in Rhipicephalus microplus engorged females. The essential oils were extracted by hydrodistillation, and the females were immersed in each essential oil at concentrations ranging from 10 µL/mL to 50 µL/mL, using 10% dimethyl sulfoxide as a solvent. Tick mortality was evaluated after seven and 14 days, and the following parameters were determined: female weight before oviposition, preoviposition period, egg mass weight, egg production index, incubation period, hatching rate, fecundity, percentage of reduction in oviposition, percentage of reduction in hatching and product efficacy. Lethal concentration (LC50) values were 34.42 µL/mL (28.34-40.86) for C. odorata and 40.60 µL/mL (32.58-58.21) for F. vulgare. This parameter was not calculated for I. verum because there was insufficient mortality at the concentrations evaluated. The greatest efficacy was observed in the group treated with 40 µL/mL F. vulgare essential oil (97.17%), followed by I. verum (91.35%) and C. odorata (86.19%) at the same concentration. Efficacy results were associated with a greater reduction in egg mass weight and lower hatching rates. Although the essential oils caused a slight acaricidal impact, they showed significant effects on the reproductive performance of R. microplus engorged females. Thus, the results of this study indicate that these essential oils can be used in the development of new acaricidal formulations.

Effect of Salvia hispanica (Chia seeds) and Foeniculum vulgare (Fennel seeds) against weight-loss and lipid profile in obese human subjects.

Increased levels of bad cholesterol in the body result in increasing blood pressure and weight gain. The rate of mortality in people, especially who are obese, is increasing due to absence of organic sources of fiber in their diets. Chia and fennel seeds are rich sources of fiber. The objective of this study was to evaluate the combined effect of Salvia hispanica (Chia seeds) and Foeniculum vulgare (Fennel seeds) against weight-loss and lipid profile in obese human subjects. The research was conducted on obese people aged 25 to 40 years at the Jinnah Hospital Lahore. The study design was randomized control trial (RCT). The sample size was calculated and was divided in-to two groups. With the duration of study being 3 months, pre-testing of all the participants was done. Group 1 was control group, given placebo treatment and Group 2 was an intervention group and given chia and fennel seeds. Post-testing was done and data were analyzed. Results showed that chia and fennel seeds have significant effect (p <0.05) on BMI and lipid profile hence, both are beneficial for lowering body weight and improving LDL, HDL, serum triglycerides and total cholesterol levels.

Efficacy of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) and anise (Pimpinella anisum) essential oils as anaesthesics in common carp (Cyprinus carpio L. 1758).

In this study, the anaesthetic effects of fennel and anise essential oils were investigated on common carp. Fish (10 ± 0.45 g) were exposed to nine concentrations of essential oils (5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 mg L-1). Additionally, the histopathological effects on the fish tissues including gill, skin and hepatopancreas and physiological effects on some blood parameters (Na+, K+, Ca+2, Cl-, total plasma protein and glucose) of essential oils were investigated in carp. At the end of the experiment, fennel oil showed an anaesthetic effect at a concentration of 500 mg L-1 in carp (anaesthesia induction and recovery times were 308 and 472 s, respectively). Anise essential oil showed deep anaesthesia at a concentration of 100 mg L-1, but anaesthesia induction time was found to be very long (20 min). In addition, anise oil at concentrations above 100 mg L-1 caused 10% mortality in fish. Blood parameters except glucose level in both essential oils were unchanged during deep anaesthesia in carp. However, plasma glucose levels were found lower in fish anaesthetized with anise oil than control and fennel groups (P < 0.05). At the histopathological examination, no pathological findings were observed in any organ of fish in the fennel group. However, severe hyperemia and inflammatory cell infiltrations in gills, erosive lesions in the skin and slight inflammatory reactions in the skin were observed in the anise group. The present study demonstrated that fennel essential oil at 500 mg L-1 concentration can be used as an effective and safe anaesthetic in common carp, but anise essential oil is not suitable.

Fennel seeds extract prevents fructose-induced cardiac dysfunction in a rat model of metabolic syndrome via targeting abdominal obesity, hyperuricemia and NF-κß inflammatory pathway.

BACKGROUND: Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is commonly associated with increased risk of cardiac disease that affects a large number of world populations. OBJECTIVE: This research attempted to investigate the efficacy of fennel seeds extract (FSE) in preventing development of cardiac dysfunction in rats on fructose enriched diet for 3 months, as a model of MetS. MATERIALS & METHODS: Thirty adult Wistar male rats (160-170 g) were assigned into 5 groups including control, vehicle, FSE (200 mg/kg BW) and fructose (60%) fed rats with and without FSE. Following the last treatment, blood pressure, ECG and heart rate were measured. Next, blood and cardiac tissues were taken for biochemical and histological investigations. RESULTS: Feeding fructose exhibited characteristic features of MetS involving, hypertension, abnormal ECG, elevated heart rate, serum glucose, insulin, lipids and insulin resistance, accompanied by abdominal obesity, cardiac hypertrophy and hyperuricemia. Fructose fed rats also showed significant reduction in cardiac antioxidants (GSH, SOD, CAT) with elevation in oxidative stress indices (NADPH oxidase, O2.-, H2O2, MDA, PCO), NF-κß, pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-6), adhesion molecules (ICAM-1, VCAM-1) and serum cardiac biomarkers (AST, LDH, CK-MB, cTn-I). Histopathological changes evidenced by destruction of cardiac myofibrils, cytoplasmic vacuolization, and aggregation of inflammatory cells were also detected. Consumption of FSE showed high ability to alleviate fructose-induced hypertension, ECG abnormalities, cardiac hypertrophy, metabolic alterations, oxidative stress, inflammation and histological injury. CONCLUSION: Findings could suggest FSE as a complementary supplement for preventing MetS and associated cardiac outcomes. However, well controlled clinical studies are still needed.

Co-application of biochar and selenium nanoparticles improves yield and modifies fatty acid profile and essential oil composition of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) under cadmium toxicity.

Fatty acids and essential oils (EOs) are the primary variables that influence the quality of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.). Soil toxicity to cadmium (Cd) is the main environmental issue facing fennel, and priming methods like soil amendments and nanoparticles (NPs) are commonly utilized to deal with it. The goal of the current study was to examine the effects of biochar (BC) and selenium nanoparticles (Se NPs) on fennel plants in Cd-contaminated soils. The pot experiment was conducted with Cd stress at 0, 10, and 20 mg kg-1 soil, BC at 5% (v/v), and foliar-spraying Se NPs at 40 mg L-1 as a factorial completely randomized design (CRD) at a greenhouse condition in 2022. The findings demonstrated that Cd toxicity significantly decreased plant performance, while BC and Se NPs enhanced it. Without BC and Se NPs, Cd toxicity at 20 mg kg-1 soil decreased biological yield (39%), seed yield (37%), EO yield (32%), and monounsaturated fatty acids (14%), while increased saturated fatty acid (26%) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (40%) of fennel. The main EO profile was anethole (65.32-73.25%), followed by limonene (16.12-22.07%), fenchone (5.57-6.83%), and estragole (2.25-3.65%), which mainly were oxygenated monoterpenes. The combined application of BC and Se NPs improved the yield, EO production, and fatty acid profile of fennel plants under Cd stress, increasing the plants' resistance to Cd toxicity.

Investigating foliar application of bulk and nanoparticles titanium dioxide on fennel productivity to mitigate the negative effects of saline irrigation water.

BACKGROUND: Fennel essential oils are fragrance compounds used in food and pharmaceutical sectors. One of the major impediments to expansion of fennel farming in Egypt's reclamation areas is saline water. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) or TiO2 nano particles (TiO2NP) can be utilized to boost the yield of aromatic plants cultivated under saline irrigation water. Saline water, particularly which contains sodium chloride can harm fennel plant; consequently, it was predicted that fennel production would fail in Egypt's reclaimed area, where the primary source of irrigation is groundwater consisting sodium chloride. This study sought to help fennel respond to sodium chloride by applying Ti forms to their leaves in order to reduce the detrimental effects of sodium chloride on them for expanding their production in the newly reclamation areas as a natural source of essential oil. Ti forms were applied as foliar application at 0, 0.1, 0.2 TiO2, 0.1 TiO2NP, and 0.2 TiO2NP, mM under irrigation with fresh water (0.4 dS m-1), or saline water (51.3 mM or 4.7 dS m-1). RESULTS: Plants exposed to 0.1 mM TiO2NP under fresh water resulted in the maximum values of morphological characters, estragole, oxygenated monoterpenes and photosynthetic pigments; while those subjected to 0.1 mM TiO2NP under saline water gave the greatest values of essential oil, proline, antioxidant enzymes and phenols. The greatest amounts of soluble sugars were recorded with 0.2 mM TiO2NP irrigated with saline water. Plants subjected to 0 mM TiO2 under saline water produced the greatest values of flavonoids, hydrogen peroxide and malondialdehyde. CONCLUSION: To mitigate the negative effects of salty irrigation water on fennel plant production, TiO2NP application is suggested as a potential strategy.

Profiling the chemical properties of Foeniculum vulgare Mill. and its flavonoids through comprehensive LC-MS/MS to evaluate their anti-motion sickness effect.

Foeniculum vulgare Mill. is a medicinal and food homologous plant, and it has various biological activities. Yet, no research has explored its anti-motion sickness effects. Chemical properties of fennel extracts (FvE) and flavonoids (Fvf) were analyzed based on UPLC-QTRAP-MS to elucidate its potential anti-motion sickness components in the present study. The mice models of motion sickness were stimulated by biaxial rotational acceleration. Behavioral experiments such as motion sickness index and open field test and the measurement of neurotransmitters were used to evaluate the efficacy of compounds on motion sickness. Results showed that FvE contains terpenes, alkaloids, flavonoids, etc. Eight flavonoids including quercetin-3ß-D-glucoside, rutin, hyperoside, quercetin, miquelianin, trifolin, isorhamnetin and kaempferol were identified in the purified Fvf. FvE and Fvf significantly reduced the motion sickness index of mice by 53.2% and 48.9%, respectively. Fvf also significantly alleviated the anxious behavior of mice after rotational stimulation. Among the eight flavonoids, isorhamnetin had the highest oral bioavailability and moderate drug-likeness index and thus speculated to be the bioactive compound in fennel for its anti-motion sickness effect. It reduced the release of 5-HT and Ach to alleviate the motion sickness response and improve the work completing ability of mice and nervous system dysfunction after rotational stimulation. This study provided in-depth understanding of the anti-motion sickness bioactive chemical properties of fennel and its flavonoids, which will contribute to the new development and utilization of fennel.

Characterization of potentially health-promoting constituents in sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum) cultivated in the Conero Natural Park (Marche region, Central Italy).

CONTEXT: Sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum L. [Apiaceae]) is an aromatic herb rich in bioactive molecules, such as polyphenols, with potential positive effects on human health. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed at the characterization of sea fennel secondary metabolites, focusing on the phenolic fraction. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Samples of whole sprouts, sole leaves and sole stems were subjected to accelerated solvent extraction with methanol, and the resulting extracts were analyzed by high­performance thin­layer chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, and liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detection and high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-DAD-HRMS). RESULTS: HPTLC and HPLC analyses of sea fennel extracts showed similar chromatographic profiles among the tested samples, and the prevalence of chlorogenic acid within the phenolic fraction was verified. Ten hydroxycinnamic acids, including neochlorogenic acid, chlorogenic acid, cryptochlorogenic acid, isochlorogenic acid B, isochlorogenic acid A and isochlorogenic acid C, 11 flavonoid glycosides, e.g., rutin, hyperoside, isoquercitrin, two triterpene saponins and two hydroxylated fatty acids, were detected and annotated via liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detection and high-resolution mass spectrometry. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: The use of accelerated solvent extraction and LC-DAD-HRMS for the characterization of sea fennel secondary metabolites allowed the annotation of seven compounds newly detected in sea fennel, including triterpene saponins and hydroxylated fatty acids.

A Comparative UHPLC-Q-Trap-MS/MS-Based Metabolomics Analysis to Distinguish Foeniculum vulgare Cultivars' Antioxidant Extracts.

Among the environmental factors, seasonality is the one which most affects the metabolome of a plant. Depending on the harvest season, the plant may have a variable content of certain metabolites and thus may have different biological properties. Foeniculum vulgare is an annual plant whose cultivation creates large amounts of waste rich in bioactive compounds. The present investigation was performed with the aim of determining the amount of biologically active compounds in F. vulgare wastes obtained from varieties of different seasonality. Ten polyphenolic compounds were quantified in the little stems and leaves of Tiziano, Pegaso, and Preludio cultivars by ultra performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) hyphenated to QTRAP mass spectrometry by using the MRM (multiple reaction monitoring) method. The antioxidant activity of hydroalcoholic extracts was then evaluated using TEAC and DPPH spectrophotometric assays, followed by a multivariate statistical analysis to determine the correlation between metabolite expression and antioxidant activity. The Preludio variety, grown in summer, showed a higher content of bioactive compounds, which guarantees it a better antioxidant power; kaempferol 3-O-glucuronide, quercetin 3-O-glucuronide, and quercetin 3-O-glucoside are the polyphenolic compounds that could be mainly responsible for the antioxidant effect of fennel. The PLS chemometric model, which correlated quantitative data obtained by a sensitive and selective LC-ESI-QTrap-MS/MS analysis of antioxidant activity, resulted in a selective tool to detect the compounds responsible for the activity shown by the extracts in chemical tests.

Correlation between insulin-like growth factor 1 gene expression and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) seed powder consumption in muscle of sheep.

It has been shown that addition of fennel in the diets of domestic animals has positive and beneficial effects on growth and meat production traits. Thus, the purpose of current study was to investigate the effect of adding fennel in the ration on growth characteristics and on insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) gene expression in muscle tissue of Kermani lamb. Feeding of animals were performed with three levels of fennel including zero, 10 and 20 g/kg dry matter (DM) for 90 days. After slaughter, small pieces of tissues were removed and rapidly transferred to a nitrogen tank. Then, total RNA extracting and the Real-Time PCR reaction was performed. Results showed that as the level of fennel in the diet increases the amount of IGF1 gene expression also increases significantly in humeral muscle and femur (leg) muscle tissues (p < 0.05). In animals fed with fennel, femur muscle weight, back muscle weight, lean meat weight, final weight, warm carcass weight and live daily gain were greater than in animals fed with diet without fennel (p < 0.05). According to the findings of this investigation, it can be concluded that fennel, by creating positive effects on IGF1 gene expression can be used to improve muscle structure.

Characterization of fennel germplasm for physiological persistence and drought recovery: Association with biochemical properties.

In the perennial medicinal plant fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), persistence over years, production stability, and successful post-drought recovery are as important as plant productivity. Characterization of productivity, post-drought recovery, persistency and their association with phytochemical properties has not yet been performed in fennel. In this study, 64 fennel genotypes (from 23 different countries) from four subspecies/varieties including F. vulgare ssp. piperitum, F. vulgare var. vulgare and F. vulgare var. dulce and F. vulgare var. azoricum were evaluated in the field over four years (2015-2018), then was assessed for post-drought recovery over the next two years (2019-2020). High genotypic variation was observed among genotypes and subspecies. Based on the GC-MS analysis, trans-anethole (22.4-90.6%), estragole (2.1-25.8%), fenchone (4.9-19.8%), and limonene (0.5-11.9%) are major components in the essential oils of the studied germplasm. The highest persistence and the lowest average post-drought recovery belonged to ssp. piperitum. This subspecies also had the highest amount of limonene, fenchone, and estragole and the lowest amount of trans-anethole compared to other subspecies. The highest essential oil content and stability was observed in var. dulce. Seed yield and persistence were found to be negatively associated, suggesting that selection for more productivity may indirectly promote less persistent genotypes. Post-drought recovery was negatively associated with two main phytochemical compounds of essential oil, fenchone and estragole, but positively associated with trans-anethole. Persistence had negative correlation with estragole content. Results indicated that indirect selection for post-drought recovery and persistence may be possible through selection for phytochemical properties. The negative correlation between some essential oil components may indicate that some are isomers, which can limit the ability to select for certain combinations. Superior genotypes identified in this study can be used to construct populations for future studies and as parents of crosses to develop new varieties.

Effects of Heat Treatments on Various Characteristics of Ready-to-Eat Zucchini Purees Enriched with Anise or Fennel.

Galactagogue herbs, also known as natural lactation adjuvants, are frequently used to stimulate breast milk production. Due to their antioxidant activity and phenolic content, anise (Pimpinella anisum L.) and fennel (Foeniculum vulgare L.) were chosen to increase the added value of zucchini (Cucurbita pepo L.) purees. At the same time, this work aimed to determine the influence of heat treatment on various characteristics of the final product. The phytochemical content, color parameters, and rheological and textural parameters of zucchini purees enriched with herbal aqueous extracts were determined after processing and after one week of storage (4 °C). In the case of antioxidant activity, samples registered a variation between 6.62 ± 1.71 and 38.32 ± 3.85 µM Trolox/g DW for the samples processed by steam convection. The total difference color parameter (ΔE) increased seven times after one week of storage compared to samples at T0. Fennel and anise aqueous extracts helped improve the rheological behavior of zucchini samples both by steam and hot air convection. This study may serve as a springboard for future investigations and clinical trials into the scientific validity and safety of ready-to-eat foods with special destinations.

An evaluation of qH NMR: A complementary approach to GC-FID for quantification of Thymol and trans-Anethole in essential oils and supplements.

Sweet fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill. var. dulce) and thyme (Zataria multiflora Boiss.) are regarded as the important supplies for pharmaceutical, food, cosmetic, and perfume industries. The major components trans-anethole and thymol are represented in fennel and thyme, respectively. The essential oils (EOs) content and the value of their related constituents should be given in strict quality control due to the storage conditions, source, and adulterations. In this study, we compared the validation of quantitative 1H NMR (qH NMR) method with the gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID) to quantify the trans-anethole and thymol in fennel and thyme EOs and their related supplements. The current results showed that the quantification of trans-anethole and thymol by qH NMR method was successfully achieved from their EOs and supplements. All the validation parameters including linearity, robustness, repeatability, and stability were authenticated for thymol and trans-anethole quantification. Similar results were obtained in both qH NMR and conventional GC-FID methods. Therefore, according to the measured values, the qH NMR method was adequate to determine the constituents of the EOs, with the results being roughly comparable to those obtained by GC-FID, with the advantage of being simple, repeatable, rapid (8-10 min, while for GC-FID 55 min) and essential for quality control of commercial samples.

Essential oil of Foeniculum vulgare subsp. piperitum fruits exerts an anti­tumor effect in triple­negative breast cancer cells.

At present, the growing spread of tumor cases worldwide renders the research of new promising and selective anticancer drugs urgent. The biological action of extracts of medicinal plants or their essential oils (EOs) is an emerging field of interest, since they could comprise a rich source of phytochemicals that can prove promising. In the present study, the biological activity and mechanism of action of the EO of Foeniculum vulgare subsp. piperitum fruits (FVPEO) were investigated using MTT assays, morphological analyses and western blotting in MDA­MB231 cells, a triple­negative breast cancer cell line. The findings revealed that FVPEO could exert strong anticancer effects, causing a dose­dependent inhibition of breast cancer MDA­MB231 cell growth, accompanied with DNA condensation and fragmentation. The cytotoxic effect of FVPEO was counteracted by the addition of the antioxidant N­acetylcysteine and was associated with a marked increase in reactive oxygen species and stress­related proteins; such as manganese superoxide dismutase, c­Jun, phospho­c­Jun N­terminal kinase and nuclear factor E2­related factor 2, and the latter's transcriptional targets, Heme oxygenase­1 and NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1). As evidenced by the activation of caspase­3 and fragmentation of poly(ADP­ribose) polymerase­1, which are typical apoptosis markers, FVPEO promoted apoptotic cell death accompanied with an increase in phosphorylated H2A histone family member X and the activation of the NQO1/p53 axis. In combination, the present experiments provided evidence that FVPEO could represent a reservoir of biologically active compounds suitable for both cancer prevention and treatment.

Olfactory Stimulation by Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) Essential Oil Improves Lipid Metabolism and Metabolic Disorders in High Fat-Induced Obese Rats.

In this study, odor components were analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and solid-phase microextraction (SPME), and odor-active compounds (OACs) were identified using GC-olfactometry (GC-O). Among the volatile compounds identified through GC-O, p-anisaldehyde, limonene, estragole, anethole, and trans-anethole elicit the fennel odor. In particular, trans-anethole showed the highest odor intensity and content. Changes in body weight during the experimental period showed decreasing values of fennel essential oil (FEO)-inhaled groups, with both body fat and visceral fat showing decreased levels. An improvement in the body's lipid metabolism was observed, as indicated by the increased levels of cholesterol and triglycerides and decreased levels of insulin in the FEO-inhaled groups compared to group H. Furthermore, the reduction in systolic blood pressure and pulse through the inhalation of FEO was confirmed. Our results indicated that FEO inhalation affected certain lipid metabolisms and cardiovascular health, which are obesity-related dysfunction indicators. Accordingly, this study can provide basic research data for further research as to protective applications of FEO, as well as their volatile profiles.

Antibacterial Activity and Epigenetic Remodeling of Essential Oils from Calabrian Aromatic Plants.

Natural compounds have historically had a wide application in nutrition. Recently, a fundamental role has been identified for essential oils extracted from aromatic plants for their nutritional, antimicrobial, and antioxidant properties, and as food preservatives. In the present study, essential oils (EOs) from ten aromatic plants grown in Calabria (Italy), used routinely to impart aroma and taste to food, were evaluated for their antibacterial activity. This activity was investigated against Escherichia coli strain JM109, and its derived antibiotic-resistant cells selected by growing the strain at low concentrations of ampicillin, ciprofloxacin, and gentamicin by measuring the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC). Although all the essential oils showed bactericidal activity, those from Clinopodium nepeta, Origanum vulgare, and Foeniculum vulgare displayed the greatest inhibitory effects on the bacterial growth of all cell lines. It is plausible that the antibacterial activity is mediated by epigenetic modifications since the tested essential oils induce methylation both at adenine and cytosine residues in the genomes of most cell lines. This study contributes to a further characterization of the properties of essential oils by shedding new light on the molecular mechanisms that mediate these properties.

Chemical composition of the essential oil from different vegetative parts of Foeniculum vulgare subsp. piperitum (Ucria) Coutinho (Umbelliferae) growing wild in Sicily.

In the present study, the chemical compositions of the essential oils from roots, stems, leaves and fruits of Foeniculum vulgare subsp. piperitum collected in Sicily were evaluated by GC and GC-MS. The main components of the roots were terpinolene (33.15%), γ-terpinene (12.18%) and fenchyl acetate (11.23%). Stems and leaves were very rich in α-phellandrene (36.85% and 41.59%, respectively) and ß-phellandrene (19.68% and 25.79%, respectively), whereas the main components of fruits were terpinolene (20.10%) and limonene (17.84%)These results were compared with those of the EOs of the same vegetative parts of Foeniculum vulgare subsp. vulgare, collected in the same station and in the same days. The oils of F. vulgare subsp. vulgare showed completely different compositions, with estragole, (E)-anethole and α-pinene as main compounds, clearly indicating the differentiation of the two subspecies. Our results were also compared with those reported in literature for other accessions of Foeniculum vulgare subsp. piperitum.

The Inhibition of Non-albicans Candida Species and Uncommon Yeast Pathogens by Selected Essential Oils and Their Major Compounds.

The epidemiology of yeast infections and resistance to available antifungal drugs are rapidly increasing, and non-albicans Candida species and rare yeast species are increasingly emerging as major opportunistic pathogens. In order to identify new strategies to counter the threat of antimicrobial resistant microorganisms, essential oils (EOs) have become an important potential in the treatment of fungal infections. EOs and their bioactive pure compounds have been found to exhibit a wide range of remarkable biological activities. We investigated the in vitro antifungal activity of nine commercial EOs such as Thymus vulgaris (thyme red), Origanum vulgare (oregano), Lavandula vera (lavender), Pinus sylvestris (pine), Foeniculum vulgare (fennel), Melissa officinalis (lemon balm), Salvia officinalis (sage), Eugenia caryophyllata (clove) and Pelargonium asperum (geranium), and some of their main components (α-pinene, carvacrol, citronellal, eugenol, γ-terpinene, linalool, linalylacetate, terpinen-4-ol, thymol) against non-albicans Candida strains and uncommon yeasts. The EOs were analyzed by GC-MS, and their antifungal properties were evaluated by minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum fungicidal concentration parameters, in accordance with CLSI guidelines, with some modifications for EOs. Pine exhibited strong antifungal activity against the selected non-albicans Candida isolates and uncommon yeasts. In addition, lemon balm EOs and α-pinene exhibited strong antifungal activity against the selected non-albicans Candida yeasts. Thymol inhibited the growth of all uncommon yeasts. These data showed a promising potential application of EOs as natural adjuvant for management of infections by emerging non-albicans Candida species and uncommon pathogenic yeasts.