Diet quality, community food access, and glycemic control among nulliparous individuals with diabetes.

Better diet quality regardless of community food access was associated with a higher likelihood of glycemic control in early pregnancy among nulliparous individuals with pregestational diabetes. These findings highlight the need for interventions that address nutrition insecurity for pregnant individuals living with diabetes.

Infant of a diabetic mother: clinical presentation, diagnosis and treatment.

An infant of a diabetic mother is defined as a newborn born to a mother who has diabetes during pregnancy. The term diabetic mother refers to pregnant women with diabetes diagnosed either before (type 1 or 2 diabetes) or during pregnancy (gestational diabetes). Rising incidence of type 1 and type 2 diabetes in young women and increasing maternal age at conception account for the higher risk of birth complications and adverse maternal and infant outcomes. Infants of diabetic mothers (IDMs) because of mother's diabetes are prone to developing complications and the most common include: large birth weight and complications resulting from it (i.e. birth injuries, perinatal asphyxia), cardiovascular and respiratory insufficiency (poor tolerance of labor stress), neonatal hypoglycemia and it's complications, delayed lung maturity (fetal hyperinsulinism and the opposite function of insulin to cortisol), cardiomegaly and hypertrophy of the intraventricular septum (functional narrowing of the outflow of the left ventricle and cardiac failure), congenital malformations (most often of the central nervous system and heart). Less common complications in IDMs are: persistent pulmonary hypertension, hyperbilirubinemia, renal vein thrombosis, small left colon syndrome, intrauterine death, polycythemia, and a predisposition to obesity, insulin resistance and diabetes later in life. This article presents current knowledge about pathological conditions and the recommended management for IDMs.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Hyperglycemia in Pregnancy: Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Gestational Diabetes.

Hyperglycemia in pregnancy due to pre-existing Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is rising globally with increasing rates of risk factors for metabolic disease. This review summarizes current evidence and recommendations from national and international guidelines for diagnosis and management of T2DM and GDM to optimize maternal and neonatal outcomes.

Continuous glucose monitoring vs. self-monitoring in pregnant individuals with type 1 diabetes: an economic analysis.

BACKGROUND: In the United States, approximately 1% of pregnancies are complicated by pregestational diabetes. Individuals with type 1 diabetes have an increased risk of adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes. While continuous glucose monitoring has demonstrated benefits for patients with type 1 diabetes, its cost is higher than traditional intermittent fingerstick monitoring, particularly if used only during pregnancy. OBJECTIVE: To develop an economic analysis model to compare in silico the cost of continuous glucose monitoring and self-monitoring of blood glucose in a cohort of pregnant individuals with type 1 diabetes mellitus. STUDY DESIGN: We developed an economic analysis model to compare two glucose monitoring strategies in pregnant individuals with type 1 diabetes: continuous glucose monitoring and self-monitoring. The model considered hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, large for gestational age, cesarean delivery, neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) admission, and neonatal hypoglycemia. The primary outcome was the total cost per strategy in 2022 USD from a health system perspective, with self-monitoring as the reference group. Probabilities, relative risks, and costs were extracted from the literature, and the costs were adjusted to 2022 US dollars. Sensitivity analyses were conducted by varying parameters based on the probability, relative risk, and cost distributions. The robustness of the results was tested through 1000 Monte Carlo simulations. RESULTS: In the base-case analysis, the cost of pregnancy using continuous glucose monitoring was $26,837 compared to $29,039 for self-monitoring, resulting in a cost reduction of $2,202 per individual. The parameters with the greatest effect on the incremental cost included the relative risk of NICU admission, cost of NICU admission, continuous glucose monitoring costs, and usual care costs. Monte Carlo simulations indicated that continuous glucose monitoring was the optimal strategy 98.7% of the time. One-way sensitivity analysis showed that continuous glucose monitoring was more economical if the relative risk of NICU admission with continuous glucose monitoring vs. self-monitoring was below 1.15. CONCLUSION: Compared to self-monitoring, continuous glucose monitoring is an economical strategy for pregnant individuals with type 1 diabetes mellitus.

Validity of Alternative Claims-based Algorithms for Type 1, Type 2, and Gestational Diabetes in Pregnancy.

OBJECTIVE: Our aim in this study was to evaluate the accuracy of alternative algorithms for identifying pre-existing type 1 or 2 diabetes (T1DM or T2DM) and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in pregnant women. METHODS: Data from a clinical registry of pregnant women presenting to an Edmonton diabetes clinic between 2002 and 2009 were linked and administrative health records. Three algorithms for identifying women with T1DM, T2DM, and GDM based on International Classification of Diseases---tenth revision (ICD-10) codes were assessed: delivery hospitalization records (Algorithm #1), outpatient clinics during pregnancy (Algorithm #2), and delivery hospitalization plus outpatient clinics during pregnancy (Algorithm #3). In a subset of women with clinic visits between 2005 and 2009, we examined the performance of an additional Algorithm #4 based on Algorithm #3 plus outpatient clinics in the 2 years before pregnancy. Using the diabetes clinical registry as the "gold standard," we calculated true positive rates and agreement levels for the algorithms. RESULTS: The clinical registry included data on 928 pregnancies, of which 90 were T1DM, 89 were T2DM, and 749 were GDM. Algorithm #3 had the highest true positive rate for the detection of T1DM, T2DM, and GDM of 94%, 72%, and 99.9%, respectively, resulting in an overall agreement of 97% in diagnosis between the administrative databases and the clinical registry. Algorithm #4 did not provide much improvement over Algorithm #3 in overall agreement. CONCLUSIONS: An algorithm based on ICD-10 codes in the delivery hospitalization and outpatient clinic records during pregnancy can be used to accurately identify women with T1DM, T2DM, and GDM.

Association of community walkability and glycemic control among pregnant individuals with pregestational diabetes mellitus.

BACKGROUND: Neighborhood walkability is a community-level social determinant of health that measures whether people who live in a neighborhood walk as a mode of transportation. Whether neighborhood walkability is associated with glycemic control among pregnant individuals with pregestational diabetes remains to be defined. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to evaluate the association between community-level neighborhood walkability and glycemic control as measured by hemoglobin A1c (A1C) among pregnant individuals with pregestational diabetes. STUDY DESIGN: This was a retrospective analysis of pregnant individuals with pregestational diabetes enrolled in an integrated prenatal and diabetes care program from 2012 to 2016. Participant addresses were geocoded and linked at the census-tract level. The exposure was community walkability, defined by the US Environmental Protection Agency National Walkability Index (score range 1-20), which incorporates intersection density (design), proximity to transit stops (distance), and a mix of employment and household types (diversity). Individuals from neighborhoods that were the most walkable (score, 15.26-20.0) were compared with those from neighborhoods that were less walkable (score <15.26), as defined per national Environmental Protection Agency recommendations. The outcomes were glycemic control, including A1C <6.0% and <6.5%, measured both in early and late pregnancy, and mean change in A1C across pregnancy. Modified Poisson regression and linear regression were used, respectively, and adjusted for maternal age, body mass index at delivery, parity, race and ethnicity as a social determinant of health, insurance status, baseline A1C, gestational age at A1C measurement in early and late pregnancy, and diabetes type. RESULTS: Among 417 pregnant individuals (33% type 1, 67% type 2 diabetes mellitus), 10% were living in the most walkable communities. All 417 individuals underwent A1C assessment in early pregnancy (median gestational age, 9.7 weeks; interquartile range, 7.4-14.1), and 376 underwent another A1C assessment in late pregnancy (median gestational age, 30.4 weeks; interquartile range, 27.8-33.6). Pregnant individuals living in the most walkable communities were more likely to have an A1C <6.0% in early pregnancy (15% vs 8%; adjusted relative risk, 1.46; 95% confidence interval, 1.00-2.16), and an A1C <6.5% in late pregnancy compared with those living in less walkable communities (13% vs 9%; adjusted relative risk, 1.33; 95% confidence interval, 1.08-1.63). For individuals living in the most walkable communities, the median A1C was 7.5 (interquartile range, 6.0-9.4) in early pregnancy and 5.9 (interquartile range, 5.4-6.4) in late pregnancy. For those living in less walkable communities, the median A1C was 7.3 (interquartile range, 6.2-9.2) in early pregnancy and 6.2 (interquartile range, 5.6-7.1) in late pregnancy. Change in A1C across pregnancy was not associated with walkability. CONCLUSION: Pregnant individuals with pregestational diabetes mellitus living in more walkable communities had better glycemic control in both early and late pregnancy. Whether community-level interventions to enhance neighborhood walkability can improve glycemic control in pregnancy requires further study.

Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy pre- and postaspirin guideline publication in individuals with pregestational diabetes mellitus.

BACKGROUND: The US Preventive Services Taskforce published guidelines in 2014 recommending that low-dose aspirin be initiated between 12 and 28 weeks of gestation among high-risk patients for preeclampsia prophylaxis. Moreover, low-dose aspirin is recommended by some clinicians for the prevention of preterm birth. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to evaluate whether there is an association between the US Preventive Services Taskforce aspirin guideline hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and the rates of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and preterm birth in individuals with pregestational diabetes mellitus. STUDY DESIGN: This was a repeated cross-sectional analysis of individuals with pregestational diabetes mellitus and at least 1 singleton delivery at >20 weeks of gestation with records available in the National Vital Statistics System between 2010 and 2018. The primary outcome was hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, and the secondary outcome was preterm birth. Demographics and clinical characteristics among individuals in the pre-US Preventive Services Taskforce guideline cohort (2010-2013) were compared with that of individuals in the post-US Preventive Services Taskforce guideline cohort (2015-2018). Multivariable regression estimated the odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for the association between guideline publication and the selected endpoints. Effect modification was assessed for access to prenatal care using the Kotelchuck Index (<80% vs ≥80%). Furthermore, a sensitivity analysis limited to nulliparas was performed. RESULTS: Overall, 224,065 individuals were included. Individuals in the post-US Preventive Services Taskforce guideline cohort were more likely to be older, be obese, and have a history of preterm birth. In unadjusted and adjusted modeling, delivery in the post-US Preventive Services Taskforce guideline cohort was associated with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (adjusted odds ratio, 1.25; 95% confidence interval, 1.22-1.28) and preterm birth (adjusted odds ratio, 1.10; 95% confidence interval, 1.08-1.12). The adjusted odds ratios for hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and preterm birth were more pronounced among those with less than adequate access to care. The findings were similar in the sensitivity analysis of only nulliparas. CONCLUSION: Delivery after US Preventive Services Taskforce aspirin guideline publication was associated with higher rates of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and preterm birth in a population of individuals with diabetes mellitus. It is unknown whether patient or practitioner factors, or other changes in obstetrical care, contributed to these findings.

Glycosylated haemoglobin as an indicator of diabetes control in pregnancy: A 10-year review of the relationship between HbA1c trends and delivery outcome in type I and type II diabetes.

BACKGROUND: Pregestational diabetes mellitus (PGDM) confers an increased risk of adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes [1,2]. Glycaemic control in the medium and long term is commonly evaluated by examining glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c) levels. However, the value of HbA1c in pregnancy may be diminished by increased level of red cell turnover characteristic of pregnancy [3,4]. We sought to examine the impact of HbA1c in the first trimester and pre-delivery, and the within-patient change throughout gestation on mode of delivery and birthweight in pregnancies complicated by a pre-pregnancy diagnosis of type I or type II diabetes. METHODS: A 10-year consecutive cohort of pregnancies complicated by PGDM, from Jan 2010 until Dec 2019, was examined for HbA1c data in the first trimester and within 6 weeks of delivery. Perinatal outcome data, including gestational age at delivery, mode of delivery and birthweight centile, were obtained from hospital records. The Spearman Rank correlation was used to correlate HcA1c levels in the first trimester with birthweight centiles. Non-parametric summaries and rank-based tests, Signed-rank test and Kruskal-Wallis test, were used to compare Hba1c levels. RESULTS: During the 10-year study period, a consecutive cohort of 396 pregnancies that attained a viable gestational age (>24 weeks' gestation) and complicated by pregestational diabetes was identified; representing 81 % of the population of pregestational diabetic pregnancies managed by this service during the study period. The median [IQR] HbA1c levels (mmol/mol) in the first trimester, pre-delivery and the differential across gestation were 51 [19] mmol/mol, 43 [11] mmol/mol and -8 [13] mmol/mol, respectively. A statistically significant reduction in HbA1c levels throughout gestation was observed (p < 0.001). The median [IQR] birthweight centile was 69 [50 - 96]. The distributions in HbA1c levels and birthweight centiles were heavily skewed. No correlation was identified between HbA1c levels and mode of delivery. CONCLUSION: Neither baseline HbA1c levels, pre-delivery values, nor trends across gestation appear to impact birthweight centile or mode of delivery in PGDM. While optimising glycaemic control can affect the long term health of the mother, these indices cannot be relied upon to reflect the impact of glycaemic control on fetal growth aberrations that influence mode of delivery.

Congenital Abnormalities in the Infant of a Diabetic Mother.

Diabetes mellitus is among the most common chronic diseases worldwide. Infants of diabetic mothers are at increased risk of having congenital abnormalities. Tremendous progress has been achieved in the pregnancy care of diabetic women; however, the risk of birth defects associated with maternal diabetes still exists. These anomalies might arise in many organs and systems of the developing fetus. Many mechanisms have been implicated in the teratogenicity of maternal diabetes and it is critical to achieve good glycemic control before conception in women with diabetes. Neonatal clinicians must be able to identify patients at risk and recognize the signs of diabetic embryopathy. This article presents a review of congenital anomalies associated with maternal diabetes.

Menstrual irregularity as a biological limit to early pregnancy awareness.

US state legislatures have proposed laws to prohibit abortion once the earliest embryonic electrical activity is detectable (fetal "heartbeat"). On average, this occurs roughly 6 wk after the last menstrual period. To be eligible for abortion, people must recognize pregnancy very early in gestation. The earliest symptom of pregnancy is a missed period, and irregular menstrual cycles-which occur frequently-can delay pregnancy detection past the point of fetal cardiac activity. In our analysis of 1.6 million prospectively recorded menstrual cycles, cycle irregularity was more common among young women, Hispanic women, and women with common health conditions, such as diabetes and polycystic ovary syndrome. These groups face physiological limitations in detecting pregnancy before fetal cardiac activity. Restriction of abortion this early in gestation differentially affects specific population subgroups, for reasons outside of individual control.

Maternal and Fetal Outcomes in Women with Diabetes in Pregnancy Treated before and after the Introduction of a Standardized Multidisciplinary Management Protocol.

BACKGROUND: Diabetes in pregnancy is associated with an increased risk to the woman and to the developing fetus. Currently, there is no consensus on the optimal management strategies for the follow-up and the timing of delivery of pregnancies affected by gestational and pregestational diabetes, with different international guidelines suggesting different management options. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cohort study from January 2017 to January 2021, to compare maternal and neonatal outcomes of pregnancies complicated by gestational and pregestational diabetes, followed-up and delivered in a third level referral center before and after the introduction of a standardized multidisciplinary management protocol including diagnostic, screening, and management criteria. RESULTS: Of the 131 women included, 55 were managed before the introduction of the multidisciplinary management protocol and included in group 1 (preprotocol), while 76 were managed according to the newly introduced multidisciplinary protocol and included in group 2 (after protocol). We observed an increase in the rates of vaginal delivery, rising from 32.7% to 64.5% (<0.001), and the rate of successful induction of labor improved from 28.6% to 86.2% (P < 0.001). No differences were found in neonatal outcomes, and the only significant difference was demonstrated for the rates of fetal macrosomia (20% versus 5.3%, P: 0.012). Therefore, the improvements observed in the maternal outcomes did not impact negatively on fetal and neonatal outcomes. CONCLUSION: The introduction of a standardized multidisciplinary management protocol led to an improvement in the rates of vaginal delivery and in the rate of successful induction of labor in our center. A strong cooperation between obstetricians, diabetologists, and neonatologists is crucial to obtain a successful outcome in women with diabetes in pregnancy.

Gestational diabetes mellitus - A metabolic and reproductive disorder.

Maternal health associated with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) has been gaining significant research attention due to its severe risk and adverse health effects. GDM is the leading health disease in pregnant women. It is the most common metabolic disease and it can affect up to 25% of women during pregnancy. Pregnancy is a sensitive period that impacts both pregnant women and their unborn children's long-term health. It is a well-known fact that the leading causes of disease and mortality worldwide are diabetes mellitus and cancer, and specifically, women with diabetes mellitus are at a higher risk of developing breast cancer (BC). Women who have diabetes are equally vulnerable to reproductive diseases. Reproductive dysfunctions with diabetes are mainly attributed to coexisting polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), obesity, and hyperinsulinemia, etc. Moreover, India has long been recognized as the world's diabetic capital, and it is widely acknowledged that particularly pregnant and lactating women are among the most affected by diabetes. In India, one-third (33%) of women with GDM had a history of maternal diabetes. Nevertheless, the latest research suggests that gestational diabetes is also a risk factor for cardiometabolic diseases of the mother and offspring. Therefore, in the 21st century, GDM imposes a major challenge for healthcare professionals. We intend to explore the role of diabetes on female reproductive function throughout various stages of life in the perspective of the changing prognosis, prevalence, and prevention of GDM.

HbA1c as a predictor of postpartum diabetes mellitus after gestational diabetes mellitus.

AIMS: Women diagnosed with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) should be evaluated postpartum with an Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT). Nevertheless, women frequently fail to it. We intend to evaluate the performance of third trimester HbA1c in the prediction of postpartum diabetes mellitus (PDM). METHODS: We conducted a retrospective study of 10245 women with GDM based on the National Registry of GDM. A receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) curve was plotted to evaluate the diagnostic performance of third trimester HbA1c in PDM prediction. RESULTS: The mean third trimester HbA1c level was 5.81% (SD 0.69%) in women who developed PDM, 5.40% (SD 0.52%) in women with pre-diabetes and 5.21% (SD 0.43%) in women with normal glucose tolerance in postpartum OGTT, with statistically significant differences (p < 0.0001). As to the ROC curve ability to predict PDM was fair, with an optimal cut-off point of HbA1c of 5.4%. Women presenting HbA1c values ≥ 5.4% were 6.1 times more likely to develop PDM. CONCLUSIONS: A third trimester HbA1c level ≥5.4% is associated with a significant higher risk of PDM (p < 0.0001). It could be used as a reliable tool for screening women with GDM and detect who will benefit the most from a close follow-up after pregnancy.

Monogenic diabetes caused by GCK gene mutation is misdiagnosed as gestational diabetes - A multicenter study in Portugal.

AIMS: Monogenic diabetes is an underdiagnosed type of diabetes mellitus, which can be harmful in pregnancy. We aim to estimate the prevalence of diabetes caused by the mutation of the glucokinase gene (GCK-MODY) in pregnant women diagnosed with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and to characterize pregnant women with this suspicion. METHODS: A multicenter observational study with data prospectively collected from pregnancies with GDM was conducted. Two groups of pregnant women were considered: those with GCK-MODY criteria and those without those criteria. RESULTS: Of 18421 women with GDM, 3.6% (n = 730) had the GCK-MODY clinical criteria. A prevalence of 1.5% of GCK-MODY is estimated in women with GDM in Portugal, which is higher than in Northern European countries. Suspected GCK-MODY women had statistically higher odds of having neonates below the 25th percentile (OR = 1.23, 95%CI = 1.04-1.46, p = 0.016) and having prediabetes and diabetes in postpartum reclassification (OR = 2.11, 95%CI = 1.55-2.82, p < 0.001 and OR = 5.96, 95%CI = 3.38-10.06, p < 0.001, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Higher odds of neonates below the 25th percentile was probably due to excessive insulin treatment in cases where both the mother and the fetus have the mutation. It is essential to consider the diagnosis of GCK-MODY in all women with GDM criteria for better management of diabetes in pregnancy.

The Use of Atomic Force Microscopy in Comprehensive Assessment of the "Mother-Placenta-Fetus" System in Obstetric and Endocrine Pathology during Pregnancy.

Atomic force microscopy is not very popular in practical health care, therefore, its potential is not studied enough, for example, in obstetrics when studying the "mother-placenta-fetus" system. Our study summarizes the possibilities of using atomic force microscopy for detection of various circulatory disorders and vascular changes at the microscopic level in the uterus (endometrium and myometrium), placenta, and umbilical cord in the main variants of obstetric and endocrine pathology. For instance, in the case of endocrine pathologies, changes in the form of stasis, sludge, diapedesis, ischemia, destruction and separation of endotheliocytes in villous blood vessels were found in the mother. The oxygen content in erythrocytes also naturally decreased in pathologies; poikilo- and anisocytosis were observed.

COVID-19 vaccination in pregnant and lactating diabetic women.

AIM: To discuss available information on the opportunity for pregnant women affected by diabetes/obesity to receive COVID-19 vaccine. DATA SYNTHESIS: Pregnant women with SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) infection are at high risk for severe acute respiratory syndrome and adverse outcomes. Pregnant women with severe COVID-19 present increased rates of preterm delivery (<37 gestational weeks), cesarean delivery and neonatal admissions to the intensive care unit. Comorbidity such as diabetes (pregestational or gestational) or obesity further increased maternal and fetal complications. It is known that diabetic or obese patients with COVID-19 present an unfavorable course and a worse prognosis, with a direct association between worse outcome and suboptimal glycol-metabolic control or body mass index (BMI) levels. Critical COVID-19 infection prevention is important for both mother and fetus. Vaccination during pregnancy is a common practice. Vaccines against COVID-19 are distributed across the world with some population considered to have a priority. Since pregnant women are excluded from clinical trials very little information are available on safety and efficacy of COVD-19 vaccines during pregnancy. However, it is well known the concept of passive immunization of the newborn obtained with transplacental passage of protective antibodies into the fetal/neonatal circulation after maternal infection or vaccination. Moreover, it has been reported that COVID-19 vaccine-induced IgG pass to the neonates through breastmilk. Therefore, maternal vaccination can protect mother, fetus and baby. CONCLUSIONS: After an individual risk/benefit evaluation pregnant and lactating women should be counselled to receive COVID-19 vaccines.

Can placental growth factors explain birthweight variation in offspring of women with type 1 diabetes?

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Maternal hyperglycaemia alone does not explain the incidence of large offspring amongst women with type 1 diabetes. The objective of the study was to determine if there is an association between placental function, as measured by angiogenic factors, and offspring birthweight z score in women with type 1 diabetes. METHODS: This cohort study included samples from 157 Continuous Glucose Monitoring in Pregnant Women with Type 1 Diabetes (CONCEPTT) trial participants. Correlations were estimated between birthweight z score and placental growth factor (PlGF) and soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase (sFlt-1) levels measured at baseline and at 24 and 34 weeks of gestation. Linear regression was used to assess the relationship between birthweight z score and placental health, as measured by PlGF and sFlt-1/PlGF ratio, stratified by glycaemic status (continuous glucose monitoring and HbA1c measures) and adjusted for potential confounders of maternal BMI, smoking and weight gain. Higher PlGF levels and lower sFlt-1/PlGF ratios represent healthy placentas, while lower PlGF levels and higher sFlt-1/PlGF ratios represent unhealthy placentas. RESULTS: Among CONCEPTT participants, the slopes relating PlGF levels to birthweight z scores differed according to maternal glycaemia at 34 weeks of gestation (p = 0.003). With optimal maternal glycaemia (HbA1c < 48 mmol/mol [6.5%]/ or continuous glucose monitoring time above range ≤ 30%), birthweight z scores were reduced towards zero (normal weight) with increasing PlGF values (representing a healthy placenta), and increased with decreasing PlGF values. With suboptimal glycaemic status (HbA1c ≥ 48 mmol/mol [6.5%] or time above range > 30%), increasing PlGF values were associated with heavier infants. Those with a healthy placenta (PlGF > 100) and suboptimal glycaemic control had a higher mean z score (2.45) than those with an unhealthy placenta (mean z score = 1.86). Similar relationships were seen when using sFlt-1/PlGF ratio as a marker for a healthy vs unhealthy placenta. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: In women with type 1 diabetes, infant birthweight is influenced by both glycaemic status and placental function. In women with suboptimal glycaemia, infant birthweight was heavier when placentas were healthy. Suboptimal placental function should be considered in the setting of suboptimal glycaemia and apparently 'normal' birthweight.