Discovery, taxonomic distribution, and phenotypic characterization of a gene required for 3-methylhopanoid production.

Hopanoids methylated at the C-3 position are a subset of bacterial triterpenoids that are readily preserved in modern and ancient sediments and in petroleum. The production of 3-methylhopanoids by extant aerobic methanotrophs and their common occurrence in modern and fossil methane seep communities, in conjunction with carbon isotope analysis, has led to their use as biomarker proxies for aerobic methanotrophy. In addition, these lipids are also produced by aerobic acetic acid bacteria and, lacking carbon isotope analysis, are more generally used as indicators for aerobiosis in ancient ecosystems. However, recent genetic studies have brought into question our current understanding of the taxonomic diversity of methylhopanoid-producing bacteria and have highlighted that a proper interpretation of methylhopanes in the rock record requires a deeper understanding of their cellular function. In this study, we identified and deleted a gene, hpnR, required for methylation of hopanoids at the C-3 position in the obligate methanotroph Methylococcus capsulatus strain Bath. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that the taxonomic distribution of HpnR extends beyond methanotrophic and acetic acid bacteria. Phenotypic analysis of the M. capsulatus hpnR deletion mutant demonstrated a potential physiological role for 3-methylhopanoids; they appear to be required for the maintenance of intracytoplasmic membranes and cell survival in late stationary phase. Therefore, 3-methylhopanoids may prove more useful as proxies for specific environmental conditions encountered during stationary phase rather than a particular bacterial group.

Methanotroph outer membrane preparation.

All presently known methanotrophs are gram-negative bacteria suggesting that they are surrounded by a two-layered membrane: an inner or cytoplasmic membrane and an outer membrane. In the methanotroph Methylococcus capsulatus (Bath), separation of the two membranes has allowed studies on protein and lipid composition of the outer membrane. Its outer membrane can be isolated from purified cell envelopes by selective solubilization of the inner membranes with the detergent Triton X-100. The proteins associated with the outer membrane can further be fractionated into integral and tightly associated proteins and peripheral loosely associated proteins. We present here protocols for this fractionation and show how the proteins associated with the outer leaflet of the outer membrane can be isolated and identified by whole-cell biotin surface labeling.

[Purification and properties of membrane-bound methane hydroxylase from Methylococcus capsulatus (strain M)].

Membrane fraction of Methylococcus capsulatus (strain M) were treated with [14C]acetylene, an affinity label binding to the active center of membrane-bound methane monooxygenase (MMO). High-purity particulate form of methane hydroxylase (pMH) was obtained by ion exchange and hydrophobic chromatography. According to SDS-PAGE data, the enzyme contained three polypeptides with molecular weights of 47 (alpha), 27 (beta), and 25 (gamma) kDa in the ratio 1:1:1. The radiolabel was contained in the beta-subunit of pMH. The protein contained 1 or 2 atoms of nonheme iron and 2-4 atoms of copper per a minimum molecular weight of 99 kDa. This protein did not oxidize methane or propylene in the presence of NADH but was able to oxidize low quantities of methane in the presence of duroquinol. It was established that methanol dehydrogenase (MD) and NADH oxidoreductase (NADH-OR) are peripheral membrane proteins. Possible causes of low activity of high-purity methane hydroxylase are discussed.

Characterization and structural analysis of an active particulate methane monooxygenase trimer from Methylococcus capsulatus (Bath).

The oxidation of methane to methanol in methanotrophs is catalyzed by the enzyme methane monooxygenase (MMO). Two distinct forms of this enzyme exist, a soluble cytoplasmic MMO (sMMO) and a membrane-bound particulate form (pMMO). We describe here the biochemical characterization of a stable and active purified pMMO hydroxylase (pMMO-H) and report a three-dimensional (3D) structure, determined by electron microscopy and single-particle analysis at 23 A resolution. Both biochemical and structural data indicate that pMMO hydroxylase is trimeric, with each monomer unit comprised of three polypeptides of 47, 26, and 23 kDa. Comparison of the recent crystal structure [Lieberman, R. L., and Rosenzweig, A. C. (2005) Nature 434, 177] of an uncharacterized pMMO-H complex with the three-dimensional (3D) structure determined here yielded a good match between the principal features and the organization of the enzyme monomers into trimers. The data presented here advance our current understanding of particulate methane monooxygenase function by the characterization of an active form of the enzyme and the corresponding 3D structure.