Synthesis and Characterization of Sulfonamide-Containing Naphthalimides as Fluorescent Probes.

A tumor-targeting fluorescent probe has attracted increasing interest in fluorescent imaging for the noninvasive detection of cancers in recent years. Sulfonamide-containing naphthalimide derivatives (SN-2NI, SD-NI) were synthesized by the incorporation of N-butyl-4-ethyldiamino-1,8-naphthalene imide (NI) into sulfonamide (SN) and sulfadiazine (SD) as the tumor-targeting groups, respectively. These derivatives were further characterized by mass spectrometry (MS), nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H NMR), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV), and a fluorescence assay. In vitro properties, including cell cytotoxicity and the cell uptake of tumor cells, were also evaluated. Sulfonamide-containing naphthalimide derivatives possessed low cell cytotoxicity to B16F10 melanoma cells. Moreover, SN-2NI and SD-NI can be taken up highly by B16F10 cells and then achieve good green fluorescent images in B16F10 cells. Therefore, sulfonamide-containing naphthalimide derivatives can be considered to be the potential probes used to target fluorescent imaging in tumors.

Dual fluorescence response of calix[4]arene-1,8-naphthalimide derivatives towards Hg(II) /Cr(VI) and their antimicrobial studies of transparent biofilms with hyaluronic acid.

In this study, 4-sulfo-1,8-naphthalimide calixarene of derivatives were prepared (3 and 4) then transparent biofilms of the Ag salts of these compounds were formed in the presence of hyaluronic acid (HA), and antimicrobial properties were investigated. In chemosensor studies, the sensing ability behavior of 3 and 4 towards some cations and anions was investigated by fluorescence spectroscopy. It was observed that the prepared chemosensors show selectivity towards Hg(II) and Cr(VI). Ligand-ion interaction occurs according to the photo-induced electron transfer (PET) mechanism. The stoichiometric ratio was calculated by using Stern-Volmer plot method and binding constant Ksv values were found as 5.2 × 107 M-1 and 5.5 × 107 M-1 for 3-Hg(II) and 4-Hg(II) complexes, respectively and 4.0 × 107 M-1 and 4.3 × 107 M-1 for 3-Cr(VI) and 4-Cr(VI) complexes. The detection limits of the complexes of 3-Hg(II) and 4-Hg(II) are 6.35 × 10-12and 6.81 × 10-12, while those of 3-Cr(VI) and 4-Cr(VI) are 1.41 × 10- 11and 8.37 × 10-12, respectively. As a result of the antimicrobial test performed with these compounds, it was observed that the most effective material was HA-3Ag, which showed a significant antibacterial effect against Sarcina lutea (S. lutea) at a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) value of 0.097 mg/mL.

Sensing and Microbiological Activity of a New Blue Fluorescence Polyamidoamine Dendrimer Modified with 1,8-Naphthalimide Units.

A novel second-generation blue fluorescent polyamidoamine dendrimer peripherally modified with sixteen 4-N,N-dimethylaninoethyloxy-1,8-naphthalimide units was synthesized. Its basic photophysical characteristics were investigated in organic solvents of different polarity. It was found that in these solvents, the dendrimer is colorless and emitted blue fluorescence with different intensities depending on their polarity. The effect of the pH of the medium on the fluorescence intensity was investigated and it was found that in the acidic medium, the fluorescence is intense and is quenched in the alkaline medium. The ability of the dendrimer to detect metal ions (Pb2+, Zn2+, Mg2+, Sn2+, Ba2+, Ni2+, Sn2+, Mn2+, Co2+, Fe3+, and Al3+) was also investigated, and it was found that in the presence of Fe3+, the fluorescent intensity was amplified more than 66 times. The antimicrobial activity of the new compound has been tested in vitro against Gram-positive B. cereus and Gram-negative P. aeruginosa. The tests were performed in the dark and after irradiation with visible light. The antimicrobial activity of the compound enhanced after light irradiation and B. cereus was found slightly more sensitive than P. aeruginosa. The increase in antimicrobial activity after light irradiation is due to the generation of singlet oxygen particles, which attack bacterial cell membranes.

Synthesis and Biological Properties of Fluorescent Strigolactone Mimics Derived from 1,8-Naphthalimide.

Strigolactones (SLs) have potential to be used in sustainable agriculture to mitigate various stresses that plants have to deal with. The natural SLs, as well as the synthetic analogs, are difficult to obtain in sufficient amounts for practical applications. At the same time, fluorescent SLs would be useful for the mechanistic understanding of their effects based on bio-imaging or spectroscopic techniques. In this study, new fluorescent SL mimics containing a substituted 1,8-naphthalimide ring system connected through an ether link to a bioactive furan-2-one moiety were prepared. The structural, spectroscopic, and biological activity of the new SL mimics on phytopathogens were investigated and compared with previously synthetized fluorescent SL mimics. The chemical group at the C-6 position of the naphthalimide ring influences the fluorescence parameters. All SL mimics showed effects similar to GR24 on phytopathogens, indicating their suitability for practical applications. The pattern of the biological activity depended on the fungal species, SL mimic and concentration, and hyphal order. This dependence is probably related to the specificity of each fungal receptor-SL mimic interaction, which will have to be analyzed in-depth. Based on the biological properties and spectroscopic particularities, one SL mimic could be a good candidate for microscopic and spectroscopic investigations.

Design, synthesis and structure-activity relationship of 1,8-naphthalimide derivatives as highly potent hCYP1B1 inhibitors.

Human cytochrome P450 1B1 enzyme (hCYP1B1), a member of hCYP1 subfamily, plays a crucial role in multiple diseases by participating in many metabolic pathways. Although a suite of potent hCYP1B1 inhibitors have been previously reported, most of them also act as aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) agonists that can up-regulate the expression of hCYP1B1 and then counteract their inhibitory potential in living systems. This study aimed to develop novel efficacious hCYP1B1 inhibitors that worked well in living cells but without AhR agonist effects. For these purposes, a series of 1,8-naphthalimide derivatives were designed and synthesized, and their structure-activity relationships (SAR) as hCYP1B1 inhibitors were analyzed. Following three rounds SAR studies, several potent hCYP1B1 inhibitors were discovered, among which compound 3n was selected for further investigations owing to its extremely potent anti-hCYP1B1 activity (IC50 = 0.040 nM) and its blocking AhR transcription activity in living cells. Inhibition kinetic analyses showed that 3n potently inhibited hCYP1B1 via a mix inhibition manner, showing a Ki value of 21.71 pM. Docking simulations suggested that introducing a pyrimidine moiety to the hit compound (1d) facilitated 3n to form two strong interactions with hCYP1B1/heme, viz., the C-Br⋯π halogen bond and the N-Fe coordination bond. Further investigations demonstrated that 3n (5 µM) could significantly reverse the paclitaxel (PTX) resistance in H460/PTX cells, evidenced by the dramatically reduced IC50 values, from 632.6 nM (PTX alone) to 100.8 nM (PTX plus 3n). Collectively, this study devised a highly potent hCYP1B1 inhibitor (3n) without AhR agonist effect, which offered a promising drug candidate for overcoming hCYP1B1-associated drug resistance.

Naphthalimide functionalized metal-organic framework for rapid and nanomolar level detection of hydrazine and anti-hypertensive drug nicardipine.

The increasing utilization of hydrazine and its derivatives across diverse sectors highlights the pressing need for efficient detection methods to safeguard human health and the environment. Likewise, nicardipine, a widely used medication for heart diseases, necessitates accurate sensing techniques for clinical research and therapeutic monitoring. Here, we propose a novel approach using a naphthalimide-functionalized Zr-MOF as a fluorometric probe capable of detecting both hydrazine and nicardipine in aqueous medium. Our designed probe exhibited a significant 31-fold increase in fluorescence intensity upon interaction with hydrazine. At the same time, nicardipine induced 86% fluorescence quenching with an exceptionally rapid response time (100 s for hydrazine and 5 s for nicardipine). The designed probe has the ability to detect both analytes at nanomolar concentrations (LOD for hydrazine is 1.11 nM while that for nicardipine is 9.6 nM). Investigation across various wastewater samples and pH conditions further validated its practical utility. The mechanism behind fluorometric sensing of nicardipine was thoroughly investigated using modern instrumentation. Our study presents a versatile and effective approach for detecting hydrazine and nicardipine, addressing crucial needs in both industrial and biomedical contexts.

A naphthalimide-based portable fluorescent sensor integrated with a photoelectric converter for rapid and on-site detection of type II pyrethroids in celery.

The on-site detection of pyrethroids, particularly type II pyrethroids, remains a challenging task in complex vegetable samples. Herein, a novel method based on naphthalimide was developed to realize the specific detection of type II pyrethroids by hydrolyzing and utilizing the compound m-phenoxybenzaldehyde (3-PBD). Hydrazine group, used as the appropriate moiety, was introduced into the fluorescent dye 1,8-naphthalimide to construct the fluoroprobe NAP. In the presence of 3-PBD, NAP displayed the prominently enhanced fluorescence and also exhibited high selectivity. This proposed method exhibited high anti-inference effects in complex media, realizing sensitive detection of 3-PBD with linear range of 2.15-800 µM and a low detection limit (LOD) of 0.64 µM. The underlying fluorescence-responsive mechanisms were in-depth elucidated by combining spectral analyses with TD-DFT theoretical calculations. Additionally, a direct and rapid hydrolysis method for deltamethrin in celery was established, achieving a high hydrolysis efficiency of >90% within 15 min. Furthermore, a portable fluorescence sensor (PFS) was developed based on high-power LEDs and photodetectors. PFS supplied a LOD of 2.23 µM for 3-PBD and exhibited comparable stability by a fluorescence spectrometer when detecting celery hydrolysate. Moreover, external power source is not required for PFS operations, thereby enabling rapid and on-site detection by transmitting data to a smartphone via bluetooth. These findings extend the academic knowledge in the field of specific pyrethroids detection and contribute to the development of on-site methods for pesticide residual analyses in food matrices.

Bacterial cell death to overcome drug resistance with multitargeting bis-naphthalimides as potent antibacterial agents against Enterococcus faecalis.

The increasing frequency of drug-resistant pathogens poses serious health issues to humans around the globe, leading to the development of new antibacterial agents to conquer drug resistance and bacterial infections. In view of this, we have synthesized a series of bis-naphthalimides to respond to awful drug resistance. Bioactivity assay and structure-activity relationship disclosed that compounds 5d and 5o exhibit potent antibacterial activity against E. faecalis, outperforming the marketed antibiotics. These drug candidates not only inhibit the biofilm formation of E. faecalis but also display rapid bactericidal properties, thus delaying the development of drug resistance within 20 passages. To explore the mechanism of antibacterial activity against E. faecalis, biofunctional examination was carried out which unveiled that 5d and 5o effectively disrupt bacterial cell membranes, causing the leakage of cytoplasmic contents and metabolic activity loss. Concurrently, 5d and 5o effectively intercalate with DNA to block DNA replication, causing the build-up of excessive reactive oxygen species and inhibiting the glutathione activity, ultimately leading to oxidative damage of E. faecalis and cell death. In addition, these compounds readily bind with HSA with a high binding constant, indicating that these drug candidates could be easily delivered to the target site. The above finding manifested that these newly synthesized bis-naphthalimides with multitargeting antibacterial properties offer a new prospect to overcome drug resistance.

Identification of naphthalimide-derivatives as novel PBD-targeted polo-like kinase 1 inhibitors with efficacy in drug-resistant lung cancer cells.

Targeting polo-box domain (PBD) small molecule for polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1) inhibition is a viable alternative to target kinase domain (KD), which could avoid pan-selectivity and dose-limiting toxicity of ATP-competitive inhibitors. However, their efficacy in these settings is still low and inaccessible to clinical requirement. Herein, we utilized a structure-based high-throughput virtual screen to find novel chemical scaffold capable of inhibiting PLK1 via targeting PBD and identified an initial hit molecule compound 1a. Based on the lead compound 1a, a structural optimization approach was carried out and several series of derivatives with naphthalimide structural motif were synthesized. Compound 4Bb was identified as a new potent PLK1 inhibitor with a KD value of 0.29 µM. 4Bb could target PLK1 PBD to inhibit PLK1 activity and subsequently suppress the interaction of PLK1 with protein regulator of cytokinesis 1 (PRC1), finally leading to mitotic catastrophe in drug-resistant lung cancer cells. Furthermore, 4Bb could undergo nucleophilic substitution with the thiol group of glutathione (GSH) to disturb the redox homeostasis through exhausting GSH. By regulating cell cycle machinery and increasing cellular oxidative stress, 4Bb exhibited potent cytotoxicity to multiple cancer cells and drug-resistant cancer cells. Subcutaneous and oral administration of 4Bb could effectively inhibit the growth of drug-resistant tumors in vivo, doubling the survival time of tumor bearing mice without side effects in normal tissues. Thus, our study offers an orally-available, structurally-novel PLK1 inhibitor for drug-resistant lung cancer therapy.

Biotin-tagged fluorescent probe for in situ visualization of γ-glutamyl transpeptidase in cancerous cells and tissues.

γ-Glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), a cell-surface enzyme, is strongly implicated in mammalian malignancy growth and migration processes including human hepatocarcinogens. However, simply and conveniently detect of GGT on the cell membrane remains highly challenging. In this study, a biotin-tagged fluorescent probe Nap-biotin-glu was developed using glutamic acid, naphthalimide, and biotin as the reaction site, fluorescent reporter, and membrane-targeting group, which required only three steps. Colocalization fluorescence imaging and immunofluorescence analysis indicated that probe Nap-biotin-glu was successfully realized in situ visualizing of GGT on the cell membrane.Owing to the significant over-expressed GGT level in tumor, the probe was successfully applied to distinguish cancer tissues from adjacent normal tissues.

Polymorphism Dependent Cytotoxicity, Cellular Uptake, and Live Cell Imaging Studies on Napthalimide-Vinyl-Phenothiazine Conjugate.

Polymorphism-dependent cytotoxicity and cellular uptake of drug molecules have been studied for the past two decades. However, the visualization of polymorph-dependent cellular uptake and cytotoxicity using microscopy imaging techniques has not yet been reported. The luminescent polymorph is an ideal candidate to validate the above hypothesis. Herein, we report the polymorph-dependent cellular uptake, cytotoxicity, and bio-imaging functions of polymorphs 1Y and 1R of a naphthalimide-phenothiazine dyad. These polymorphs show different luminescence colors in the solid state and exhibit aggregation-induced enhanced emission (AIEE) in the DMSO-Water mixture. Bioimaging, cytotoxicity assay, and fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) studies revealed that these polymorphs show different levels of cytotoxicity, cellular uptake, localization, and imaging potential. Detailed photophysical, morphological, and biological studies revealed that the difference in molecular conformation in these polymorphs enables them to form aggregates of different sizes and morphology, which leads to the differential uptake of these into the cells and consequently shows different cytotoxicity and imaging potentials.

Naphthalimide-based fluorescent probe for Hg2+ detection and imaging in living cells and zebrafish.

A simple naphthalimide-based fluorescent probe was designed and synthesized for the determination of mercury ion (Hg2+ ). The probe showed a noticeable fluorescence quenching response for Hg2+ . When added with Hg2+ , the fluorescence intensity of the probe at 560 nm was remarkably decreased with the color changed from yellow to colorless under ultraviolet (UV) light. The probe had a notable selectivity and sensitivity for Hg2+ and displayed an excellent sensing performance when detecting Hg2+ at low concentration (19.5 nM). The binding phenomenon between the probe and Hg2+ was identified by Job's method and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). Moreover, the probe was not only utilized to identify Hg2+ in real samples with satisfactory results (92.00%-110.00%) but also was successfully used for bioimaging in cells and zebrafish. The recognition mechanism has been verified by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for the first time. All the results showed that the probe could be used as a potent useful tool for detection of Hg2+ .

Naphthalimide-based new architecture for fluorescence turn-on sensing of Cu2+ and colorimetric detection of F-/CN.

A new molecular structure 1 has been developed on naphthalimide motif. The amine and triazole binding groups have been employed at the 4-position of naphthalimide to explore the sensing behavior of molecule 1. Single crystal x-ray diffraction and other spectroscopic techniques confirm the identity of 1. Compound 1 exhibits high selectivity and sensitivity for Cu2+ ions in CH3CN. The binding of Cu2+ shows âˆ¼ 70-fold enhancement in emission at 520 nm. The binding follows 1:1 interaction and the detection limit is determined to be 6.49 × 10-7 M. The amine-triazole binding site in 1 also corroborates the detection of F- through a colour change in CH3CN. Initially H-bonding and then deprotonation of amine -NH- in the presence of F- are the sequential steps involved in F- recognition with a detection limit of 4.13 × 10-7 M. Compound 1 is also sensible to CN- like F- ion and they are distinguished by Fe3+ ion. Cu2+-ensemble of 1 fluorimetrically recognizes F- among the tested anions and vice-versa. The collaborative effect of amine and triazole motifs in the binding of both Cu2+ and F-/CN- has been explained by DFT calculation.

A mitochondria-targeted ratiometric fluorescent sensor based on naphthalimide derivative-functionalized silica-based nanodots for imaging formaldehyde in living cells and zebrafish.

A mitochondria-targeted ratiometric fluorescent sensor (Mito-Si-NA) for formaldehyde (FA) has been constructed by functionalizing silica-based nanodots (silica-based ND). As the fluorescence reference and carrier, the silica-based ND conjugate with small molecule probe for FA via covalent. Further modifying with mitochondria targeting moiety enables the sensor to specifically target mitochondria. In the presence of FA, the emission of silica-based ND remain constant to act as an internal reference (445 nm) while the response signal of small molecule probe was gradually enhanced (545 nm). This sensor exhibits excellent selectivity towards FA with great changes of fluorescence intensity ratio values (I545/I445). The FA ratiometric fluorescence imaging in mitochondria was achieved successfully. In addition, the sensor was also successfully used for imaging FA in zebrafish. The good performance of Mito-Si-NA for FA bioimaging confirms that Mito-Si-NA is an appealing imaging tool to monitor FA in mitochondria and shows great potential to study the functions of FA on mitochondria.

Engineered Artesunate-Naphthalimide Hybrid Dual Drug for Synergistic Multimodal Therapy against Experimental Murine Lymphoma.

Lymphoma can effectively be treated with a chemotherapy regimen that is associated with adverse side effects due to increasing drug resistance, so there is an emergent need for alternative small-molecule inhibitors to overcome the resistance that occurs in lymphoma management and overall increase the prognosis rate. A new series of substituted naphthalimide moieties conjugated via ester and amide linkages with artesunate were designed, synthesized, and characterized. In addition to the conjugates, to further achieve a theranostic molecule, FITC was incorporated via a multistep synthesis process. DNA binding studies of these selected derivatives by ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis), fluorescence spectroscopy, intercalating dye (EtBr, acridine orange)-DNA competitive assay, and minor groove binding dye Hoechst 33342-DNA competitive assay suggested that the synthesized novel molecules intercalated between the two strands of DNA due to its naphthalimide moiety and its counterpart artesunate binds with the minor groove of DNA. Napthalimide-artesunate conjugates inhibit the growth of lymphoma and induce apoptosis, including ready incorporation and reduction in cell viability. The remodeled drug has a significant tumoricidal effect against solid DL tumors developed in BALB/c mice in a dose-dependent manner. The novel drug appears to inhibit metastasis and increase the survival of the treated animals compared with untreated littermates.

Naphthalimide-based Functional Glycopolymeric Nanoparticles as Fluorescent Probes for Selective Imaging of Tumor Cells.

A series of functional glycopolymer nanoparticles with 1,8-naphthalimide motif was designed, synthesized and applied for tumor cell imaging. With the pH-sensitive and aggregation-induced emission (AIE) effect of the 1,8-naphthalimide fluorescent probe, the presence of glucose-based glycopolymers enhanced its water-solubility and biocompatibility. Owing to the dual tumor-targeting effects of the dense glucose part and the boronic ester modification, the obtained glycopolymers showed high affinity to tumor cells, with a much faster staining rate than normal cells, indicating a great potential for diagnosis and treatments of cancers.

Research Progress on Structure-Activity Relationship of 1,8-Naphthalimide DNA Chimeras Against Tumor.

The development of 1,8-naphthalimide derivatives as cell probes, DNA targeting agents, and anti-tumor drugs is one of the research hotspots in the field of medicine. Naphthalimide compounds are a kind of DNA embedder, which can change the topological structure of DNA by embedding in the middle of DNA base pairs, and then affect the recognition and action of topoisomerase on DNA. Aminofide and mitonafide are the first 2 drugs to undergo clinical trials. They have good DNA insertion ability, can embed DNA double-stranded structure, and induce topoisomerase II to cut part of pBR322DNA, but not yet entered the market due to their toxicity. In this paper, the design and structure-activity relationship of mononaphthalimide and bisaphthalimide compounds were studied, and the relationship between the structure of naphthalimide and anti-tumor activity was analyzed and discussed. It was found that a variety of structural modifications were significant in improving anti-tumor activity and reducing toxicity.

Synthesis, Characterization, Cytotoxicity, Cellular Imaging, Molecular Docking, and ADMET Studies of Piperazine-Linked 1,8-Naphthalimide-Arylsulfonyl Derivatives.

To reduce the mortality and morbidity associated with cancer, new cancer theranostics are in high demand and are an emerging area of research. To achieve this goal, we report the synthesis and characterization of piperazine-linked 1,8-naphthalimide-arylsulfonyl derivatives (SA1-SA7). These compounds were synthesized in good yields following a two-step protocol and characterized using multiple analytical techniques. In vitro cytotoxicity and fluorescent cellular imaging of the compounds were assessed against non-cancerous fibroblast (3T3) and breast cancer (4T1) cell lines. Although the former study indicated the safe nature of the compounds (viability = 82-95% at 1 µg/mL), imaging studies revealed that the designed probes had good membrane permeability and could disperse in the whole cell cytoplasm. In silico studies, including molecular docking, molecular dynamics (MD) simulation, and ADME/Tox results, indicated that the compounds had the ability to target CAIX-expressing cancers. These findings suggest that piperazine-linked 1,8-naphthalimide-arylsulfonyl derivatives are potential candidates for cancer theranostics and a valuable backbone for future research.

Synthesis of organic-solvent-soluble cellulose and preparation of fluorescent polyurethanes for the detection and removal of Hg+ ions.

Modifying cellulose to obtain materials with favorable processing properties and functions is highly significant, especially, for the detection and removal of heavy metal ions. In this study, fluorescent cellulose-based polyurethane (PU) films containing naphthalimide fluorophore were synthesized and could use for the convenient detection and removal of Hg+ ions. Firstly, the microcrystalline cellulose was treated with SOCl2 to convert some -OH groups into -Cl. Simultaneously, a naphthalimide derivative (NAN) with -NH- groups was synthesized. Subsequently, a fluorescent cellulose-based probe (Cel-NAN) was prepared by utilizing the substitution reaction between -Cl on cellulose and -NH- on NAN. Finally, two cellulose-based fluorescent PU films (Cel-NAN-PU1 and Cel-NAN-PU2) were successfully synthesized by reacting the unreacted -OH groups on Cel-NAN with PEG-1000 and HDI/IPDI. These as-prepared PU films could serve as portable fluorescence test papers to Hg+ ions in aqueous solutions. Upon contact with Hg+ ions, the fluorescence was quenched, acting as a "turn-off" probe. Simultaneously, these films could serve as adsorbents for the removal of Hg+ ions from aqueous systems. Cel-NAN-PU1 film exhibited a removal efficiency over 80 % and an adsorption capacity of 8.4 mg·cm-2 for Hg+. These cellulose-based fluorescent PU films possess promising potential in the field of mercury pollution control.

Visualization of an Endogenous Mitochondrial Azoreductase Activity under Normoxic Conditions Using a Naphthalimide Azo-Based Fluorogenic Probe.

In this paper, we demonstrate the existence of an endogenous mitochondrial azoreductase (AzoR) activity that can induce the cleavage of N═N double bonds of azobenzene compounds under normoxic conditions. To this end, 100% OFF-ON azo-based fluorogenic probes derived from 4-amino-1,8-naphthalimide fluorophores were synthesized and evaluated. The in vitro study conducted with other endogenous reducing agents of the cell, including reductases, demonstrated both the efficacy and the selectivity of the probe for AzoR. Confocal experiments with the probe revealed an AzoR activity in the mitochondria of living cells under normal oxygenation conditions, and we were able to demonstrate that this endogenous AzoR activity appears to be expressed at different levels across different cell lines. This discovery provides crucial information for our understanding of the biochemical processes occurring within the mitochondria. It thus contributes to a better understanding of its function, which is implicated in numerous pathologies.