Influence of the antibiotic nitrofurazone on community dynamics of marine periphytic ciliates: Evidence from community-based bioassays.

Marine periphytic ciliates play a pivotal role in shaping coastal ecosystems dynamics, thereby acting as robust biological indicators of aquatic ecosystem health and functionality. However, the understanding of the effects of veterinary antibiotics on composition and structure of periphytic ciliate communities remains limited. Therefore, this research investigates the influence of the veterinary antibiotic nitrofurazone on the community dynamics of marine periphytic ciliates through bioassay experiments conducted over a one-year cycle. Various concentrations of nitrofurazone were administered to the tested ciliate assemblages, and subsequent changes in community composition, abundance, and diversity were quantitatively analyzed. The research revealed significant alterations in periphytic ciliate communities following exposure to nitrofurazone. Concentration-dependent (0-8 mg L-1) decrease in ciliates abundance, accompanied by shifts in species composition, community structure, and community patterns were observed. Comprehensive assessment of diversity metrics indicated significant changes in species richness and evenness in the presence of nitrofurazone, potentially disrupting the stability of ciliate communities. Furthermore, nitrofurazone significantly influenced the community structure of ciliates in all seasons (winter: R2 = 0.489; spring: R2 = 0.666; summer: R2 = 0.700, autumn: R2 = 0.450), with high toxic potential in treatments 4 and 8 mg L-1. Differential abundances of ciliates varied across seasons and nitrofurazone treatments, some orders like Pleurostomatida were consistently affected, while others (i.e., Strombidida and Philasterida) showed irregular distributions or were evenly affected (e.g., Urostylida and Synhymeniida). Retrieved contrasting patterns between nitrofurazone and community responses underscore the broad response repertoire exhibited by ciliates to antibiotic exposure, suggesting potential cascading effects on associated ecological processes in the periphyton community. These findings significantly enhance the understanding of the ecological impacts of nitrofurazone on marine periphytic ciliate communities, emphasizing the imperative for vigilant monitoring and regulation of veterinary antibiotics to protect marine ecosystem health and biodiversity. Further research is required to explore the long-term effects of nitrofurazone exposure and evaluate potential strategies to reduce the ecological repercussions of antibiotics in aquatic environments, with a particular focus on nitrofurazone.

Antibiotic nitrofurazone drives the functional dynamics of periphytic protozoan fauna in marine environments.

The use of functional traits of a community as a method to measure its functional dynamics in response to environmental change has gained attention because trait-based approaches offer systematic opportunities to understand the interactions between species diversity and ecosystem function. However, the relationship between functional traits of periphytic protozoa and contamination of aquatic habitats with antibiotics is poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the influence of the antibiotic nitrofurazone on functional traits of marine periphytic protozoan fauna. For this purpose, the protozoan assemblages were collected from coastal waters of the Yellow Sea at Qingdao, northern China, during four seasons of a one-year cycle using glass microscope slides as artificial substrates. The test protozoan communities were then exposed to various treatments of nitrofurazone in laboratory bioassay experiments. Our results demonstrated that the modalities of the functional traits of protozoan communities were generally driven by nitrofurazone toxicity. Briefly, R-mode linked to Q-mode (RLQ) and fourth-corner analyses revealed strong positive correlations between functional traits and nitrofurazone treatments. Trait syndromes in terms of body length, width, weight, height, and size to volume ratios were significantly influenced by nitrofurazone exposure. In particular, small and medium body size species of different feeding types, i.e., algivores, bacterivores, raptors or non-selectives, were more sensitive than other protozoan species to higher concentrations of nitrofurazone. Our findings demonstrate that antibiotic toxicity is likely to affect periphytic protozoan community function, shape the functional processes, and induce toxic responses in the community. The findings of this study suggest that periphytic protozoan communities and their functional traits are suitable bioindicators for evaluating the ecotoxicity of nitrofurazone in marine environments.

Predation risk affects the ecotoxicity evaluation of antibiotics: Population growth and antioxidase activity in the ciliate Paramecium jenningsi.

Although predation risk exists under natural conditions, its role is usually ignored when evaluating the ecotoxicity of environmental contaminants, and the interaction between predation risk and antibiotic ecotoxicity is not yet clear. To investigate the nonconsumptive effects (NCEs) of predation on the ecotoxicity evaluation of antibiotics, the median lethal concentration (LC50), relative population growth rate (RGR), and activities of three antioxidases were measured in the ciliate Paramecium jenningsi exposed to graded concentrations of the antibiotics nitrofurazone (NFZ) or erythromycin (ERY) in the presence or absence of a predator, i.e., the ciliate Didinium nasutum. The results showed that (1) NCEs significantly reduced the LC50 of NFZ but had no effect on that of ERY; (2) predation pressure alone had no significant effect on the inhibitory rate of the P. jenningsi population, but the interaction with NFZ was synergistic, while that with CRY was additive; (3) the concentrationresponse (i.e., mortality) model for each antibiotic exposure with and without predation pressure differed significantly in the parameter slope; (4) RGRs were significantly reduced by antibiotic exposure or NCEs; only in NFZ-exposed groups did the RGRs decrease linearly with increasing exposure concentration; and (5) the activities of all three antioxidases significantly increased due to NCEs or following exposure to antibiotics. In brief, NCEs were detected in P. jenningsi, and these had additive or synergistic effects on antibiotic ecotoxicity, but their magnitude depended on the properties and exposure concentrations of the antibiotics. Our findings suggest that it is necessary to consider the roles of NCEs in the ecotoxicity evaluation of environmental contaminants.

Effects of nitrofurazone on ecosystem function in marine environments: A case study on microbial fauna.

To evaluate the effects of nitrofurazone on functional processes in marine ecosystems, periphytic protozoan communities were exposed to different concentrations of the antibiotic for a 10-day duration. Species trait distributions in the tested communities were observed during exposure to five concentrations of nitrofurazone. A fuzzy coding system with seven traits and seventeen categories was used to summarize the changes in functional patterns of the test organisms. Nitrofurazone had a significant influence on the function process of the periphytic ciliate communities. Bacterivores with flattened bodies were sensitive to the toxicant whereas sessile and cylindrical raptors showed a high tolerance to nitrofurazone, invariably dominating communities exposed to high concentrations. Bootstrapped-average analysis demonstrated a significant change in functional patterns at highest nitrofurazone concentrations (8 mg l-1). Based on these findings, it is suggested that nitrofurazone may negatively influence ecosystem function in marine environments.

An approach to determining the nitrofurazone-induced toxic dynamics for ecotoxicity assessment using protozoan periphytons in marine ecosystems.

With several observable responses and sensitivity of protozoans to nitrofurazone (NFZ), the toxic effects of NFZ on protozoans can be an early warning signal of NFZ contamination in the aquatic environment. To evaluate the toxic dynamics induced by NFZ, protozoan samples were collected using microscopy glass slides and exposed to the five concentrations of NFZ: 0, 1, 2, 4, and 8 mg ml-1. Substantial differences in the species composition and toxic-dynamics patterns were observed among all concentrations. Briefly, periphytic euplotids and pleurostomatids were the most prevalent at each concentration level, while dysteriids were less dominant among all treatments. Multivariate analysis revealed significant (P < 0.05) differences in the taxonomic patterns of the test organisms among the five treatments. Furthermore, significant deviation of protozoan communities from the expected taxonomic breadth was observed to occur in a dose-dependent manner. Based on these findings, it is suggested that protozoan periphytons could be used as bioindicators to assess the ecotoxicity of NFZ in the marine environment.

Insights into the ecotoxicity of nitrofurazone in marine ecosystems based on body-size spectra of periphytic ciliates.

In ecotoxicological studies, some biological responses known as biomarkers can be used as powerful tools to evaluate the ecotoxicity. In this study, we investigated the disparity of responses shown by body-size spectra of periphytic ciliate communities when used as biomarkers to detect the toxicity of the broad-spectrum veternary antibiotic nitrofurazone. Briefly, in chronic exposure experiments ciliate communities were exposed to different concentrations (0, 1, 2, 4 and 8 mg ml-1) of nitrofurazone. Relative Abundance of ciliates in all body-size categories decreased significantly, whereas their frequency of occurrence and probability densities showed hormetic-like responses in a dose dependent manner. Additionally, body-size distinctness indices were influenced by toxic stress and significantly departed from an expectation at higher nitrofurazone concentrations. Taken together, our results demonstrated that body-size spectra and body-size distinctness offered clear evidence of nitrofurazone toxicity in periphytic ciliates. Body-size spectra can therefore be used as a pivotal biomarker to determine the ecotoxicity of nitrofurazone in aquatic environments.

A community-based approach to analyzing the ecotoxicity of nitrofurazone using periphytic protozoa.

The ecotoxicity of nitrofurazone was analyzed based on a community-based approach using periphytic protozoa. Median lethal concentrations (LC50) within an exposure time of 30 min were determined by an acute toxicity test at 0, 1.5, 3, 6 and 12 mg ml-1 nitrofurazone. Toxicity curve tests demonstrated a decreasing trend with increasing exposure time and was well fitted to the toxicity equation LC50 = 32.85e-0.8143t (t = exposure time; R2 = 0.91; P < 0.05). Median inhibition concentrations (IC50) for periphytic protozoan growth rates were obtained by chronic tests at 0, 1, 2, 4 and 8 mg ml-1 nitrofurazone within 10 days exposure and were well fitted to the equation r% = 0.3686e-0.35Cnit (Cnit is the concentration of nitrofurazone; R2 = 0.92 and P < 0.05). These findings suggest that the LC50 and IC50 values of nitrofurazone can be predicted for any exposure time using periphytic protozoan communities as a bioassay model.

An approach to evaluating the acute toxicity of nitrofurazone on community functioning using protozoan periphytons.

The acute toxicity of nitrofurazone on community functioning was studied using an acute toxicity test. Consequently, 14-day protozoan periphyton assemblages were used as test organism communities, under a range of nitrofurazone concentrations including 0 (control), 0.5, 3, 6, and 12 mg ml-1 within 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 h time duration. Fuzzy coding system of functional traits classified the test protozoan periphyton community into six major traits and 15 categories. Briefly, community-weighted means (CWM) were used to identify the community functioning of test protozoan assemblage. Inferences demonstrate a drastic/significant variation in the functional patterns of the test organisms at a high concentration (12 mg ml-1) after an exposure time of 12 h, but the functional diversity indices leveled off at the exposure time of 10 h and then dropped sharply. These results suggested that nitrofurazone may significantly influence the community functioning in marine ecosystems.

Nitrofurazone Removal from Water Enhanced by Coupling Photocatalysis and Biodegradation.

(1) Background: Environmental contamination with antibiotics is particularly serious because the usual methods used in wastewater treatment plants turn out to be insufficient or ineffective. An interesting idea is to support natural biodegradation processes with physicochemical methods as well as with bioaugmentation with efficient microbial degraders. Hence, the aim of our study is evaluation of the effectiveness of different methods of nitrofurazone (NFZ) degradation: photolysis and photodegradation in the presence of two photocatalysts, the commercial TiO2-P25 and a self-obtained Fe3O4@SiO2/TiO2 magnetic photocatalyst. (2) Methods: The chemical nature of the photocatalysis products was investigated using a spectrometric method, and then, they were subjected to biodegradation using the strain Achromobacter xylosoxidans NFZ2. Additionally, the effects of the photodegradation products on bacterial cell surface properties and membranes were studied. (3) Results: Photocatalysis with TiO2-P25 allowed reduction of NFZ by over 90%, demonstrating that this method is twice as effective as photolysis alone. Moreover, the bacterial strain used proved to be effective in the removal of NFZ, as well as its intermediates. (4) Conclusions: The results indicated that photocatalysis alone or coupled with biodegradation with the strain A. xylosoxidans NFZ2 leads to efficient degradation and almost complete mineralization of NFZ.

Exploration of small RNA biomarkers for testicular injury in the serum exosomes of rats.

Testicular injury is often observed in drug development. Serum hormones are usually used as noninvasive biomarkers for testicular injury; however, their sensitivities are low. Therefore, it is difficult to monitor testicular injury in drug development. In recent years, molecules in body fluid exosomes have attracted attention as biomarkers for diseases. In this study, small RNAs in serum exosomes were analyzed to identify noninvasive biomarkers of testicular injury in rats, which are often used in preclinical drug development. The rat models of testicular injury were prepared by a single oral administration of 2000 mg/kg ethylene glycol monomethyl ether, in which spermatocyte degeneration and Sertoli cell vacuolation were observed, or 400 mg/kg carbendazim, in which Sertoli cell vacuolation and seminiferous tubule dilation were observed. Serum exosomal small RNA-seq analysis of these models was performed. The analysis identified 3 small RNAs that fluctuated in common between the models, and miR-423-5p and miR-128-3p were selected as candidate markers. For evaluating these candidate markers in other testicular injury models, the models were prepared by a single oral administration of 60 mg/kg 1,3-dinitrobenzene or 500 mg/kg nitrofurazone, and spermatocyte degeneration and Sertoli cell vacuolation were observed. In qPCR analysis, these exosomal miRNAs were upregulated in all models except for the 1,3-dinitrobenzene model, in which severe hemolysis was observed. By contrast, these miRNAs in whole serum extracts did not significantly change in any of the models. In conclusion, we identified miR-423-5p and miR-128-3p in serum exosomes as noninvasive biomarkers for testicular injury in rats.

Evaluation of biomarkers for ecotoxicity assessment by dose-response dynamic models: Effects of nitrofurazone on antioxidant enzymes in the model ciliated protozoan Euplotes vannus.

Understanding dose-responses is crucial for determining the utility of biomarkers in ecotoxicity assessment. Nitrofurazone is a broad-spectrum antibiotic that is widely used in the aquaculture industry in China despite its detrimental effects on ecosystems. Potential dose-response models were examined for the effect of nitrofurazone on two antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), in the ciliated protozoan Euplotes vannus. This was achieved by measuring enzyme activity and gene expression profiling of SOD and GPx in ciliate cells exposed to nitrofurazone at doses ranging from 0 to 180mgl-1 for 6h, 12h, 18h and 24h. Dose-response dynamics were characterized by mathematical models. Results showed that: 1) dose-response patterns differed significantly among the tested endpoints, nitrofurazone concentrations and durations of exposure; 2) GPx activity was the best candidate biomarker because of its linear dose-response relationship; 3) SOD activity and mRNA relative expression levels of GPx and SOD are also candidate biomarkers but their dose-responses were non-linear and therefore more difficult to interpret; 4) partitioning the dose-response dynamic model by piecewise function can help to clarify the relationships between biological endpoints. This study demonstrates the utility of dynamic model analysis and the potential of antioxidant enzymes, in particular GPx activity, as a candidate biomarkers for environmental monitoring and risk assessment of nitrofurazone in the aquaculture industry.

Recognizing the importance of exposure-dose-response dynamics for ecotoxicity assessment: nitrofurazone-induced antioxidase activity and mRNA expression in model protozoan Euplotes vannus.

The equivocality of dose-response relationships has, in practice, hampered the application of biomarkers as a means to evaluate environmental risk, yet this important issue has not yet been fully recognized or explored. This paper evaluates the potential of antioxidant enzymes in the ciliated protozoan Euplotes vannus for use as biomarkers. Dose-response dynamics, together with both the enzyme activity and the gene expression of the antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase, were investigated when E. vannus were exposed to graded doses of nitrofurazone for several discrete durations. Mathematical models were explored to characterize the dose-response profiles and, specifically, to identify any equivocality in terms of endpoint. Significant differences were found in both enzyme activity and messenger RNA (mRNA) expression in the E. vannus treated with nitrofurazone, and the interactions between exposure dosage and duration were significant. Correlations between enzyme activity, mRNA expression, and nitrofurazone dose varied with exposure duration. Particularly, the dose-responses showed different dynamics depending on either endpoint or exposure duration. Our findings suggest that both the enzyme activity and the gene expression of the tested antioxidant enzymes can be used as biomarkers for ecotoxicological assessment on the premise of ascertaining appropriate dosage scope, exposure duration, endpoint, etc., which can be achieved by using dose-response dynamics.

Characterizing dose-responses of catalase to nitrofurazone exposure in model ciliated protozoan Euplotes vannus for ecotoxicity assessment: enzyme activity and mRNA expression.

In environmental studies, some biological responses, known as biomarkers, have been used as a powerful bioassay tool for more than four decades. Disparity between enzyme activity and mRNA abundance leads to correlation equivocality, which makes the application of biomarkers for environmental risk assessment more complicated. This study investigates this disparity in the case of catalase when used as a biomarker for detecting ecotoxicity induced by antibiotics in aquatic ecosystems. In particular, dose-responses for catalase activity and mRNA expression abundance were investigated in Euplotes vannus which were exposed to graded doses of nitrofurazone for several discrete durations, and dose-response models were developed to characterize the dose-response dynamics. Significant differences were found in both catalase activity and mRNA expression abundance among the E. vannus treated with nitrofurazone. Catalase activity showed a hormetic-like effect in terms of dose-response, characterized by a biphasic relationship which was more clearly evident after a longer exposure period, while mRNA expression abundance increased linearly with the exposure duration. Additionally, the correlation between catalase activity and mRNA expression abundance reversed along with the duration of exposure to nitrofurazone. Taken together, our results demonstrate that catalase mRNA expression offers a more straightforward dose-response model than enzyme activity. Our findings suggest that both catalase enzyme activity and mRNA expression abundance can be used jointly as bioassay tools for detecting ecotoxicity induced by nitrofurazone in aquatic ecosystems.

[3, 4- dinitro-furazan-based oxidation furazan acute and subchronic toxicity studies].

OBJECTIVE: To study the 3, 4- dinitro-furazan-based oxidation furazan (DNTF) of sub-acute toxicity and chronic toxicity, to determine the acute toxicity classification DNTF, the nature of toxic effects and major target organ for the development provide the basis for occupational exposure limits. METHODS: ( 1) Acute toxicity: The oral gavage method once infected, symptoms of poisoning of animals observed to calculate the LD50DNTF and 95% confidence limits. ( 2) sub-chronic experiment: selection of 96 healthy SD rats were randomly divided into four groups, doses of 25, 56.2, 125 mg/kg and the negative control group, Exposure for ninety days,five days a week, once a day, The rats were killed at end of Exposure, heart, liver, spleen, lung, kidney, brain,testis, uterus were taken to observe the pathological changes. RESULTS: ( 1) Acute oral toxicity test results indicate that DNTF rat oral LD50 greater than 5000 mg/kg, DNTF mice treated by oral LD50 4589 mg/kg, 95%confidence limit for the 4026-5230 mg/kg, Acute toxicity grade level is low toxicity compounds. (2) Sub-chronic toxicity experiment, the high-dose male rats, high, medium and low-dose group female rats weight gain than the negative control group, compared with the control group, the difference was statistically significant (P<0.05).125 mg/kg of serum alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase was significantly higher. 125 mg/kg dose groups, liver, kidney, lung, testicular factor was significantly higher. Liver, kidney, lung histological examination showed obvious morphological changes. CONCLUSION: Acute toxicity grade DNTF low toxicity level compounds, target organ toxicity of liver, kidney and lung.

Inhibin B response to testicular toxicants hexachlorophene, ethane dimethane sulfonate, di-(n-butyl)-phthalate, nitrofurazone, DL-ethionine, 17-alpha ethinylestradiol, 2,5-hexanedione, or carbendazim following short-term dosing in male rats.

BACKGROUND: Inhibin B is a heterodimer glycoprotein that downregulates follicle-stimulating hormone and is produced predominantly by Sertoli cells. The potential correlation between changes in plasma Inhibin B and Sertoli cell toxicity was evaluated in male rats administered testicular toxicants in eight studies. Inhibin B fluctuations over 24 hr were also measured. METHODS: Adult rats were administered one of eight testicular toxicants for 1 to 29 days. The toxicants were DL-ethionine, dibutyl phthalate, nitrofurazone, 2,5-hexanedione, 17-alpha ethinylestradiol, ethane dimethane sulfonate, hexachlorophene, and carbendazim. In a separate study plasma was collected throughout a 24-hr period via an automatic blood sampler. RESULTS: Histomorphologic testicular findings included seminiferous tubule degeneration, round and elongate spermatid degeneration/necrosis, seminiferous tubule vacuolation, aspermatogenesis, and interstitial cell degeneration. There was a varying response of plasma Inhibin B levels to seminiferous tubule toxicity, with three studies showing high correlation, three studies with a response only at a certain time or dose, and two studies with no Inhibin B changes. In a receiver operating characteristics exclusion model analysis, where treated samples without histopathology were excluded, Inhibin B showed a sensitivity of 70% at 90% specificity in studies targeting seminiferous tubule toxicity. CONCLUSION: Decreases in Inhibin B correlated with Sertoli cell toxicity in the majority of studies evaluated, demonstrating the value of Inhibin B as a potential biomarker of testicular toxicity. There was no correlation between decreases in Inhibin B and interstitial cell degeneration. In addition, a pattern of Inhibin B secretion could not be identified over 24 hr.

[Teratogenicity of 3, 4 two furazan-based oxidation furazan in rats].

OBJECTIVE: To study the teratogenicity of new high-energy compounds, 3, 4 two furazan-based oxidation furazan (DNTF) and the impact on human health, occupational exposure limits were provided for the following research. METHODS: Pregnant SD rats were randomly divided into five groups by Standard teratogenicity test, including three dose groups (5.0, 15.8, 50.0 mg/kg), the negative control (vegetable oil), and the positive control group (CP 10.0 mg/kg). Each 10 to 15 rats were in one group. Gavage was consecutive for rats during pregnancy 7 ∼ 12 d and then sacrifice after 20 d. RESULTS: There were no significantly difference between the three dose groups and negative controls in the pregnancy rate, the weight of pregnant rats, fetal weight, fetal growth, fetal malformation rate and internal organs, CONCLUSION: There were no maternal toxicity, embryo toxicity and teratogenicity for rats when DNTF in the range 5.0 ∼ 50.0 mg/kg.

A prodrug approach to improve the physico-chemical properties and decrease the genotoxicity of nitro compounds.

In therapeutics research, the nitro compounds are part of an important group of drugs with multiple pharmacological activities. However, in drug design, the inclusion of a nitro group in a molecule changes the physico-chemical and electronic properties and is associated with increased mutagenicity and carcinogenicity. In addition, several studies have related the relationship between the antimicrobial and/or anti-protozoal activity and the mutagenic effect to reduction of the nitro group. This work reviews the toxicity of nitro compounds and shows how the use of prodrugs can increase the biological activity and decrease the genotoxicity of nitro compounds, without any modification in nitro reduction behavior, but rather by physico-chemical improvement. Examples are given of metronidazole and nitrofurazone prodrugs.

Use of RAPD to detect DNA damage induced by nitrofurazone in marine ciliate, Euplotes vannus (Protozoa, Ciliophora).

The random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) assay was evaluated as a potential tool to detect the ecotoxicity induced by nitrofurazone in marine ciliate, Euplotes vannus. The data revealed a reduction in viability of the test ciliates with increasing nitrofurazone concentration in the range of 0-24 mgl(-1) and time of exposure from 24 to 96 h. The nitrofurazone treated ciliates were subjected to DNA damage analysis by RAPD assay. Among the 33 test RAPD primers used in this study, 11 primers with 60-70% GC content produced unique polymorphic band patterns. A total of 213 bands of 155-3317 bp in molecular size range were observed in the untreated cells. In comparison with the control ciliates, the nitrofurazone treated groups showed differences in RAPD profiles with respect to the band intensity, disappearance of bands and appearance of new bands of amplified DNA. The variation of RAPD profiles showed both the time- and concentration-dependent relationships. The data suggested significant genomic template instability, which corresponds well with the viability of the test ciliates. Thus the results demonstrated the potential of the RAPD assay for application as a powerful tool for detecting genotoxicity induced by fishy drugs in aquatic environment.

Escherichia coli YafP protein modulates DNA damaging property of the nitroaromatic compounds.

Escherichia coli SOS functions constitute a multifaceted response to DNA damage. We undertook to study the role of yafP, a SOS gene with unknown function. yafP is part of an operon also containing the dinB gene coding for DNA Polymerase IV (PolIV). Our phylogenetic analysis showed that the gene content of this operon is variable but that the dinB and the yafP genes are conserved in the majority of E. coli natural isolates. Therefore, we studied if these proteins are functionally linked. Using a murine septicaemia model, we showed that YafP activity reduced the bacterial fitness in the absence of PolIV. Similarly, YafP increased cytotoxicity of two DNA damaging nitroaromatic compounds, 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide (NQO) and nitrofurazone, in the absence of PolIV. The fact that PolIV counterbalances YafP-induced cytotoxicity could explain why these two genes are transcriptionally linked. We also studied the involvement of YafP in genotoxic-stress induced mutagenesis and found that PolIV and YafP reduced NQO-induced mutagenicity. The YafP antimutator activity was independent of the PolIV activity. Given that YafP was annotated as a putative acetyltransferase, it could be that YafP participates in the metabolic transformation of genotoxic compounds, hence modulating the balance between their mutagenicity and cytotoxicity.

Nucleotide excision repair is a predominant mechanism for processing nitrofurazone-induced DNA damage in Escherichia coli.

Nitrofurazone is reduced by cellular nitroreductases to form N(2)-deoxyguanine (N(2)-dG) adducts that are associated with mutagenesis and lethality. Much attention recently has been given to the role that the highly conserved polymerase IV (Pol IV) family of polymerases plays in tolerating adducts induced by nitrofurazone and other N(2)-dG-generating agents, yet little is known about how nitrofurazone-induced DNA damage is processed by the cell. In this study, we characterized the genetic repair pathways that contribute to survival and mutagenesis in Escherichia coli cultures grown in the presence of nitrofurazone. We find that nucleotide excision repair is a primary mechanism for processing damage induced by nitrofurazone. The contribution of translesion synthesis to survival was minor compared to that of nucleotide excision repair and depended upon Pol IV. In addition, survival also depended on both the RecF and RecBCD pathways. We also found that nitrofurazone acts as a direct inhibitor of DNA replication at higher concentrations. We show that the direct inhibition of replication by nitrofurazone occurs independently of DNA damage and is reversible once the nitrofurazone is removed. Previous studies that reported nucleotide excision repair mutants that were fully resistant to nitrofurazone used high concentrations of the drug (200 microM) and short exposure times. We demonstrate here that these conditions inhibit replication but are insufficient in duration to induce significant levels of DNA damage.