Neurochemical Effects of 4-(2Chloro-4-Fluorobenzyl)-3-(2-Thienyl)-1,2,4-Oxadiazol-5(4H)-One in the Pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-Induced Epileptic Seizure Zebrafish Model.

Epilepsy is one of the most common neurological disorders, and it is characterized by spontaneous seizures. In a previous study, we identified 4-(2-chloro-4-fluorobenzyl)-3-(2-thienyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5(4H)-one (GM-90432) as a novel anti-epileptic agent in chemically- or genetically-induced epileptic zebrafish and mouse models. In this study, we investigated the anti-epileptic effects of GM-90432 through neurochemical profiling-based approach to understand the neuroprotective mechanism in a pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced epileptic seizure zebrafish model. GM-90432 effectively improved PTZ-induced epileptic behaviors via upregulation of 5-hydroxytryptamine, 17-ß-estradiol, dihydrotestosterone, progesterone, 5α -dihydroprogesterone, and allopregnanolone levels, and downregulation of normetanephrine, gamma-aminobutyric acid, and cortisol levels in brain tissue. GM-90432 also had a protective effect against PTZ-induced oxidative stress and zebrafish death, suggesting that it exhibits biphasic neuroprotective effects via scavenging of reactive oxygen species and anti-epileptic activities in a zebrafish model. In conclusion, our results suggest that neurochemical profiling study could be used to better understand of anti-epileptic mechanism of GM-90432, potentially leading to new drug discovery and development of anti-seizure agents.

A 3-min UPLC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous determination of plasma catecholamines and their metabolites: Method verification and diagnostic efficiency.

OBJECTIVE: To verify a rapid and sensitive ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method for the quantification of catecholamines and their metabolites, and to validate its efficiency for the diagnosis of phaeochromocytomas and paragangliomas (PPGLs). METHODS: Plasma samples were pretreated with solid-phase extraction, followed by a 3-min UPLC-MS/MS analysis to quantify epinephrine (E), norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA), metanephrine (MN), normetanephrine (NMN) and 3-methoxytyramine (3-MT), simultaneously. The UPLC-MS/MS method was comprehensively verified and its diagnostic efficiency on PPGLs was tested using 7 PPGLs and 408 non-PPGLs patient plasma samples. RESULTS: Using the developed method, the limit of detections (LODs) of the 6 analytes ranged from 0.0002 nmol/L (MN) to 0.0250 nmol/L (NE), while the lower limit of measuring intervals (LLMIs) ranged from 0.05 nmol/L (E, MN and NMN) to 0.10 nmol/L (NE and DA). The reportable ranges were 0.05-30.00 nmol/L for E, MN and NMN, 0.10-30.00 nmol/L for NE and DA, 1.00-300.00 pg/mL for 3-MT. No significant matrix effect was detected after correcting using internal standard. Besides, intra-day and inter-day precision were also within acceptance criteria with coefficient of variations (CVs) ≤ 15% and recoveries ranged from 95% to 115% for all the 6 analytes. The carryover effect was lower than 10%. Its diagnostic efficiency for PPGLs was significantly increased, the areas under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were increased from 68.7% to 89.1% (using E, NE and DA) to 75.2%-99.9% (using MN, NMN and 3-MT). CONCLUSION: This study verified a rapid UPLC-MS/MS method for the determination of catecholamines and their metabolites in human plasma. It showed high diagnostic efficiency and will serve as an important tool to avoid the risk for missing patients with PPGLs.

Micturition syncope: a rare presentation of bladder paraganglioma.

A 68-year-old woman presented with episodes of headache, palpitations, sweating and poorly controlled hypertension for the past 6 years. These symptoms were, at times, associated with micturition, and there were few episodes of micturition syncope as well. She had elevated 24-hour urinary normetanephrine and was found to have a paraganglioma arising from the urinary bladder infiltrating the sigmoid colon. She underwent laparotomy with excision of the bladder paraganglioma, following which her symptoms subsided. Paragangliomas are extra-adrenal catecholamine-producing tumours. Bladder paragangliomas need to be considered when evaluating hypertensive patients with headache, palpitations or syncope related to micturition.

Development and validation of a HPLC electrochemical detection method to measure COMT activity as a tool in drug development.

The determination of catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) activity is considered valuable for various pharmaceutical and biomedical research projects. A specific high performance liquid chromatography-coulometric electrochemical detection method, for the assay of COMT activity was developed by measuring the formation of normetanephrine from norepinephrine. The chromatographic separation was achieved on a C18 reversed phase column with a mobile phase consisting of 10 mM sodium dihydrogen phosphate buffer, 4 mM sodium 1-octanesulfonate, 0.17 mM ethylenediaminetetra-acetic acid disodium salt, 6 % methanol and 4 % acetonitrile (pH ± 4.0). The detection of normetanephrine was achieved through electrochemical detection, with a coulometric cell potential setting of +450 mV. The flow rate was at 1 ml/min and the total run time was 45 min. The method was validated according to validation guidelines (Shabir 2006; European Medicines Agency 2011; US FDA 2018). The method was found to be linear (R² > 0.99) over the analytical range (100 to 2500 ng/ml) for all the analytes. All the other validation parameters (sensitivity, precision, accuracy, recovery and stability) were acceptable and within range. The method was applied for the determination of COMT activity in rat liver homogenate test samples. The known selective COMT inhibitor entacapone was used as test inhibitor. The results confirmed the ability of entacapone to inhibit COMT activity by decreasing the production of all the metabolites of norepinephrine.

Effects of Trilostane on urinary Catecholamines and their metabolites in dogs with Hypercortisolism.

BACKGROUND: Glucocorticoids influence the synthesis and metabolism of catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) and metanephrines (metanephrine and normetanephrine). The aim of this study was to measure urinary catecholamines and metanephrines in dogs with hypercortisolism before and during trilostane therapy. Urine samples were collected during initial work up and during therapy with trilostane in 14 dogs with hypercortisolism and in 25 healthy dogs. Epinephrine, norepinephrine, metanephrine and normetanephrine were measured using high-pressure liquid chromatography and expressed as ratios to urinary creatinine concentration. RESULTS: Untreated dogs with hypercortisolism had significantly higher epinephrine, norepinephrine, and normetanephrine:creatinine ratios compared to healthy dogs. During trilostane therapy, urinary catecholamines and their metabolites did not decrease significantly. However, dogs with low post-ACTH cortisol concentrations during trilostane therapy had less increased epinephrine, norepinephrine and normetanephrine:creatinine ratios compared to healthy dogs. There was no correlation of urinary catecholamines and their metabolites with baseline or post-ACTH cortisol or endogenous ACTH concentrations during trilostane therapy. CONCLUSION: Influences between steroid hormones and catecholamines seem to occur, as dogs with hypercortisolism have significantly higher urinary epinephrine, norepinephrine, and normetanephrine:creatinine ratios. Once-daily trilostane therapy does not lead to a significant decrease in catecholamines and their metabolites. Trilostane-treated dogs still have increased urinary epinephrine, norepinephrine and normetanephrine:creatinine ratios during trilostane therapy.

Comparison of the effects of nicotinic acid and nicotinamide degradation on plasma betaine and choline levels.

AIM: The present study was to compare the effects of nicotinic acid and nicotinamide on the plasma methyl donors, choline and betaine. METHODS: Thirty adult subjects were randomly divided into three groups of equal size, and orally received purified water (C group), nicotinic acid (300 mg, NA group) or nicotinamide (300 mg, NM group). Plasma nicotinamide, N1-methylnicotinamide, homocysteine, betaine and choline levels before and 1.5-h and 3-h post-dosing, plasma normetanephrine and metanephrine concentrations at 3-h post-dosing, and the urinary excretion of N1-methyl-2-pyridone-5-carboxamide during the test period were examined. RESULTS: The level of 3-h plasma nicotinamide, N1-methylnicotinamide, homocysteine, the urinary excretion of N1-methyl-2-pyridone-5-carboxamide and pulse pressure (PP) in the NM group was 221%, 3972%, 61%, 1728% and 21.2% higher than that of the control group (P < 0.01, except homocysteine and PP P < 0.05), while the 3-h plasma betaine, normetanephrine and metanephrine level in the NM group was 24.4%, 9.4% and 11.7% lower (P < 0.05, except betaine P < 0.01), without significant difference in choline levels. Similar but less pronounced changes were observed in the NA group, with a lower level of 3-h plasma N1-methylnicotinamide (1.90 ± 0.20 µmol/l vs. 3.62 ± 0.27 µmol/l, P < 0.01) and homocysteine (12.85 ± 1.39 µmol/l vs. 18.08 ± 1.02 µmol/l, P < 0.05) but a higher level of betaine (27.44 ± 0.71 µmol/l vs. 23.52 ± 0.61 µmol/l, P < 0.05) than that of the NM group. CONCLUSION: The degradation of nicotinamide consumes more betaine than that of nicotinic acid at identical doses. This difference should be taken into consideration in niacin fortification.

Catecholamines and their O-methylated metabolites in vitreous humor in hypothermia cases.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to assess the diagnostic value of catecholamines and their O-methylated metabolites in vitreous humor samples in identifying antemortem cold exposure and fatal hypothermia in the forensic casework. METHODS: A total of 80 autopsy cases (40 hypothermia fatalities and 40 cases in which hypothermia as the main or contributory cause of death was excluded) were selected for this study. Catecholamines and their O-methylated metabolites were measured in urine and vitreous humor samples collected at autopsy. RESULTS: Urine catecholamine and their O-methylated metabolite concentrations were significantly higher in hypothermia-related deaths. On the other hand, measurements in vitreous humor samples did not reveal statistically significant differences between hypothermia-related deaths and controls. CONCLUSIONS: Globally considered, our findings seem to suggest that, contrary to urine catecholamines and their O-methylated metabolites, vitreous levels of these compounds appear to be of limited value in characterizing human antemortem stress reactions due to cold exposure and can hardly be used in the forensic setting to support the diagnosis of hypothermia.

Angiotensin II status and sympathetic activation among hypertensive patients in Uganda: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Sympathetic activation and renin-angiotensin system are essential for development and sustenance of hypertension. However, the status of these systems has not been well evaluated among patients in an African setting. This study therefore set out to assess the angiotensin II status and sympathetic activation among hypertensive patients in Uganda. METHODS: In this cross sectional study conducted at Mulago, the national referral hospital, blood samples were taken to measure angiotensin II, metanephrines and normetanephrines. Urine samples were also taken for measuring urine creatinine and sodium. The angiotensin II categories were defined using the Mosby's Diagnostic and Laboratory Test References. 9th ed while the metanephrines and normetanephrine categories were defined using the Makerere University Biosafety II Immunology Laboratory reference values. RESULTS: 162 patients were consented and enrolled into the study, of these 136 (84 %) had low, 15 (9 %) had normal, while, 11 (7 %) had high angiotensin II levels. 142 (88 %) participants had normal levels of metanephrine, while 20 (12 %) had high levels. Only 88 were assessed for metanephrines and of these 85 (97 %) had normal, while 3 (3 %) had raised levels. Urine sodium was associated with low and normal angiotensin II levels (P value 0.007). Female gender and diastolic blood pressure were associated with a protective effect against high normetanephrines (OR 0.29, P value 0.015), 80-89 mmHg (OR 0.19, p value 0.053), above 100 mmHg (OR 0.27, p value 0.022). Current smoking status was associated with high risk for abnormal normetanephrines (OR 17.6, P value -0.022) while former smoking was associated with high risk for abnormal metanephrines (OR 18.7, p value 0.022). After multivariate analysis, all the significant variables at bivariate analysis were still significant except those who stopped smoking and those with a BP at 80-89 which were not significant. CONCLUSIONS: Hypertensive patients in this setting have predominantly low angiotensin II hypertension as a result of high salt intake. Sympathetic activation is not a significant mechanism of hypertension in this study population, more so in the females, with the exception of smokers who have a highly activated sympathetic system. Therefore, the use of agents targeting renin angiotensin and sympathetic systems as single first line antihypertensive agents in this setting should be re-evaluated if such patients are to be treated effectively.

Binge Ethanol and MDMA Combination Exacerbates Toxic Cardiac Effects by Inducing Cellular Stress.

Binge drinking is a common pattern of ethanol consumption among young people. Binge drinkers are especially susceptible to brain damage when other substances are co-administered, in particular 3,4 methylendioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). The aim of the present work was to study the mechanisms implicated in the adaptive changes observed after administration of these drugs of abuse. So, we have evaluated the cardiac sympathetic activity and the expression and activation of heat shock protein 27 (HSP27), after voluntary binge ethanol consumption, alone and in combination with MDMA. Both parameters are markers of stressful situations and they could be modified inducing several alterations in different systems. Adolescent mice received MDMA, ethanol or both (ethanol plus MDMA). Drinking in the dark (DID) procedure was used as a model of binge. Noradrenaline (NA) turnover, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), TH phosphorylated at serine 31 and HSP27 expression and its phosphorylation at serine 82 were evaluated in adolescent mice 48 h, 72 h, and 7 days after treatments in the left ventricle. NA and normetanephrine (NMN) were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC); TH and HSP27 expression and phosphorylation were measured by quantitative blot immunollabeling using specific antibodies. Ethanol and MDMA co-administration increased NA turnover and TH expression and phosphorylation versus the consumption of each one of these drugs. In parallel with the described modifications in the cardiac sympathetic activity, our results showed that binge ethanol+MDMA exposure is associated with an increase in HSP27 expression and phosphorylation in the left ventricle, supporting the idea that the combination of both drugs exacerbates the cellular stress induced by ethanol or MDMA alone.

Clinical utility of chromogranin A in SDHx-related paragangliomas.

BACKGROUND: Measurement of plasma/urinary catecholamine metabolites--especially normetanephrine (NMN)--represents a gold standard in biochemical detection of succinate dehydrogenase subunit B (SDHB) and D (SDHD)-related pheochromocytomas (PHEO) and paragangliomas (PGL). This study was designed to assess diagnostic utility of chromogranin A (CgA) alone or in combination with NMN in patients with PHEO/PGL related to mutations in SDHB and SDHD. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective study of SDHB and SDHD NIH patients' cohort, which included 41 patients with SDHB mutation-related PHEO/sPGL and 18 patients with either SDHD or SDHB mutation-related head and neck PGL (HNPGL) with both CgA and NMN measured at the time of diagnosis at NIH. RESULTS: In the SDHB group, CgA showed sensitivity of 73.2% and specificity of 95.9%, while for NMN they were 70.7% and 98.6%, respectively. Elevations in CgA and NMN were complementary in 92.7% of patients with proven tumors. Both tests performed well on receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. CgA levels were elevated in 76.9% of SDHB patients and in 80% of patients with metastatic disease and normal NMN levels. CgA values in patients with HNPGL were significantly lower than in patients with PHEO/sPGL. CONCLUSION: CgA is a valuable complementary biomarker in work-up of SDHB-related PHEO/sPGL. In combination with plasma NMN, CgA further enhances tumor detection by 22.0% with minimal loss in specificity. Although non-specific for PHEO/PGL, CgA may well supplement plasma NMN to facilitate diagnostic evaluation of SDHB-related PHEO/sPGL, especially where the measurement of plasma metanephrines could otherwise be delayed by decreased availability or cost restriction.

Plasma-free metanephrine and free normetanephrine measurement for the diagnosis of pheochromocytoma in dogs.

BACKGROUND: Measurement of plasma-free metanephrines is the test of choice to identify pheochromocytoma in human patients. OBJECTIVES: To establish the sensitivity and specificity of plasma-free metanephrine (fMN) and free normetanephrine (fNMN) concentrations to diagnose pheochromocytoma in dogs. ANIMALS: Forty-five client-owned dogs (8 dogs with pheochromocytoma, 11 dogs with adrenocortical tumors, 15 dogs with nonadrenal disease, and 11 healthy dogs.) METHODS: A prospective study. EDTA plasma was collected from diseased and healthy dogs and submitted for fMN and fNMN measurement by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). RESULTS: Free MN concentration (median [range]) was significantly higher in dogs with pheochromocytoma (8.15 [1.73-175.23] nmol/L) than in healthy dogs (0.95 [0.68-3.08] nmol/L; P < .01) and dogs with adrenocortical tumors (0.92 [0.25-2.51] nmol/L; P < .001), but was not different from dogs with nonadrenal disease (1.91 [0.41-6.57] nmol/L; P ≥ .05). Free NMN concentration was significantly higher in dogs with pheochromocytoma (63.89 [10.19-190.31] nmol/L) than in healthy dogs (2.54 [1.59-4.17] nmol/L; P < .001), dogs with nonadrenal disease (3.30 [1.30-10.10] nmol/L; P < .001), and dogs with adrenocortical tumors (2.96 [1.92-5.01] nmol/L); P < 0.01). When used to diagnose pheochromocytoma, a fMN concentration of 4.18 nmol/L had a sensitivity of 62.5% and specificity of 97.3%, and a fNMN concentration of 5.52 nmol/L had a sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 97.6%. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Plasma fNMN concentration has excellent sensitivity and specificity for the diagnosis of pheochromocytoma in dogs, whereas fMN concentration has moderate sensitivity and excellent specificity. Measurement of plasma-free metanephrines provides an effective, noninvasive, means of identifying dogs with pheochromocytoma.

Lack of enantioselectivity in the SULT1A3-catalyzed sulfoconjugation of normetanephrine enantiomers: an in vitro and computational study.

(1R)-Normetanephrine is the natural stereoisomeric substrate for sulfotransferase 1A3 (SULT1A3)-catalyzed sulfonation. Nothing appears known on the enantioselectivity of the reaction despite its potential significance in the metabolism of adrenergic amines and in clinical biochemistry. We confronted the kinetic parameters of the sulfoconjugation of synthetic (1R)-normetanephrine and (1S)-normetanephrine by recombinant human SULT1A3 to a docking model of each normetanephrine enantiomer with SULT1A3 and the 3'-phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphosulfate cofactor on the basis of molecular modeling and molecular dynamics simulations of the stability of the complexes. The K(M), V(max), and k(cat) values for the sulfonation of (1R)-normetanephrine, (1S)-normetanephrine, and racemic normetanephrine were similar. In silico models were consistent with these findings as they showed that the binding modes of the two enantiomers were almost identical. In conclusion, SULT1A3 is not substrate-enantioselective toward normetanephrine, an unexpected finding explainable by a mutual adaptability between the ligands and SULT1A3 through an "induced-fit model" in the catalytic pocket.

A study of longer-time stability of plasma free metanephrines.

BACKGROUND: Previous stability studies of plasma free metanephrines do not extend beyond one month. For retrospective evaluation and documentation purposes, knowledge of stability for more prolonged storage periods is required. METHODS: A panel of seven plasma samples was aliquoted and stored at -20 and -80°C. Aliquots were thawed and assayed by high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection at regular intervals during three years. A final set was assayed after five years at -80°C. Results were evaluated by repeated-measures analysis of variance. RESULTS: After a stable period of over one year, an upward trend for plasma free metanephrine and a downward trend for normetanephrine was observed. For both analytes, measurement results were parallel between samples during the study. Concentrations in samples stored at -20°C did not differ from those stored at -80°C. CONCLUSIONS: Storage at either -20 or -80°C must be considered as safe for at least one year. The residual variation with respect to time of the concentrations of metanephrines was identical in all of the samples assayed and almost did not exceed previously determined within-run variation. This suggests that between-assay variability is the cause of the overall trends and not sample deterioration. Moreover, between-assay variability manifesting itself as drift or trend remained within the range of earlier observed between-assay variation. Despite this, the assay for plasma metanephrines remains capable of detecting catecholamine overproduction in plasma samples that have been stored for prolonged periods of time.

Predictive factors for malignant pheochromocytoma: analysis of 136 patients.

PURPOSE: We evaluated the clinical characteristic, tumor feature and immunohistochemistry factors predicting malignant pheochromocytoma. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Between January 1999 and December 2008 we retrospectively reviewed the records of 136 patients with pheochromocytoma at Ruijin Hospital. We compared clinical characteristics (age, gender, symptoms and biochemical analysis), tumor features (site, weight and diameter) and the expression of 3 angiogenesis/metastasis related genes (VEGF, Cox-2 and MVD) by immunohistochemical analysis of benign vs malignant pheochromocytomas. RESULTS: Of the 136 patients 105 (77%) had benign and 31 (23%) had malignant pheochromocytoma. Malignant tumors were larger and heavier than benign tumors, and accompanied by higher plasma metanephrine secretion (each p <0.001). Mean tumor catecholamine and preoperative 24-hour urinary metanephrine or normetanephrine were obviously higher in malignant than in benign tumors (p <0.001). Also, 25 malignant tumors (81%) were immunopositive for VEGF while only 24 benign tumors (23%) showed this characteristic (p <0.001). Microvessel density and the rate of positive staining for Cox-2 protein in malignant samples were higher than in benign samples (p <0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Several promising predictive parameters are currently available to distinguish benign from malignant pheochromocytoma. Large (5 cm or greater) or heavy (250 gm or greater) tumors, multifocal and extra-adrenal tumors, early onset postoperative hypertension and higher plasma or urine metadrenaline are high risk factors predictive of malignant pheochromocytoma. Also, expression of the 3 angiogenesis or metastasis related genes VEGF, Cox-2 and MVD helps determine the diagnosis of malignancy and suggests strict followup.

Influence of various confounding variables and storage conditions on metanephrine and normetanephrine levels in plasma.

OBJECTIVE: Measurements of plasma free metanephrines have been advocated as first-line tests for phaeochromocytoma. The aim of the study was to assess the impact of potential confounding variables. DESIGN: Comparative study between 2008 and 2009. SUBJECTS: Hundred and eighty healthy subjects. MEASUREMENTS: The effects of age, BMI, gender, menstrual cycle (sampling every 2 days), time of day (sampling every 2 h), venepunture (0, 15, 30, 60, 90 and 120 min), physical exercise (0, 15 and 30 min), coffee (0 and 60 min), breakfast (0 and 60 min) and various body positions (standing and supine rest, each 0 and 120 min) were evaluated. In addition, whole blood and plasma samples were stored at 4 degrees C or at 22 degrees C for 0, 1, 3, 24 and 72 h. Plasma free metanephrines were measured using radioimmunoassay (LDN). RESULTS: While metanephrine was significantly influenced by sex and age, BMI and sex were significant predictors of normetanephrine. Coffee (+20%) and food (+8%) elevated normetanephrine significantly (P < 0.05), while metanephrine remained stable. Physical exercise increased metanephrine (+82%) as well as normetanephrine (+84%) significantly (P < 0.005). Supine rest significantly decreased both metanephrine (-34%) and normetanephrine (-19%) when compared to standing rest (P < 0.01). Metanephrine and normetanephrine were not significantly influenced by time of day, menstrual cycle or venepuncture. When plasma samples were stored at 4 degrees C, metanephrine and normetanephrine were stable for 72 h. CONCLUSIONS: Physical exercise may lead to relevant changes in metanephrine and normetanephrine and should therefore be avoided prior to sampling. Although effects of age, sex and BMI were small, these variables should be considered when interpreting biochemical results. Blood should be taken in the supine position, and samples should be immediately centrifuged and stored at 4 degrees C to improve stability.

The effect of the human gut-signalling hormone, norepinephrine, on the growth of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Helicobacter pylori is an important human pathogen, infecting around half the population of the world. It has developed a number of refinements to allow it to persist in the human stomach. Catecholamine hormones have been shown to enhance growth of other bacterial species and are found in the gastric niche. We aimed to study growth enhancement of H. pylori by the human catecholamine hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine. METHODS: Growth studies were carried out in complex and defined media containing the hormones epinephrine, norepinephrine, and normetanephrine, the main host metabolite of norepinephrine. Bacterial density was measured by viable count or optical density. Intracellular ATP was measured using a bioluminescence assay technique. RESULTS: Both epinephrine and norepinephrine enhanced H. pylori growth in a dose-dependent strain-independent fashion, with norepinephrine being more effective than epinephrine. We showed a rapid (4 hours) dose-dependent effect on metabolic activity, as measured by intracellular ATP levels. We used a chemically defined medium to study mechanisms: chelation of ferric iron blocked H. pylori growth, which could be overcome by addition of norepinephrine. Disruption of the catechol group of norepinephrine abrogated its H. pylori-growth-promoting activity. CONCLUSIONS: Norepinephrine stimulates growth of H. pylori under otherwise growth-restricted conditions, and this effect is related to the ability of norepinephrine to bind ferric iron. This supports the notion that norepinephrine may aid H. pylori persistence in the stomach.

Tyrosine hydroxylase phosphorylation after naloxone-induced morphine withdrawal in the left ventricle.

Our previous studies have shown that morphine withdrawal induced hyperactivity of cardiac noradrenergic pathways. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effects of morphine withdrawal on site-specific tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) phosphorylation in the rat left ventricle. Dependence on morphine was induced by a 7-day s.c. implantation of morphine pellets. Morphine withdrawal was precipitated on day 8 by an injection of naloxone (2 mg/kg, s.c.). TH phosphorylation was determined by quantitative blot immunolabelling using phosphorylation state-specific antibodies. Ninety min after naloxone administration to morphine-dependent rats there was an increase in phospho-Ser40-TH (139.0 +/- 13%, P < 0.05) and Ser31-TH (135.5 +/- 11%, P < 0.05) in the left ventricle which is associated with both an increase in total TH levels (114.4 +/- 4.6%, P < 0.05, P < 0.01) and an enhancement of TH activity (51.0 +/- 11 dm/microg protein, P < 0.001). When HA-1004 (40 nmol/day), inhibitor of cyclic AMP dependent protein kinase (PKA) was infused, concomitantly with morphine, it diminished the increase in noradrenaline (NA) turnover, total TH expression (95.76 +/- 4.1 %, P < 0.01) and TH phosphorylation at Ser40 (85.5 +/- 11%, P < 0.01) in morphine-withdrawn rats. In addition, we showed that the ability of morphine withdrawal to stimulate phosphorylation at serine 31 is reduced (101.7 +/- 7.7%, P < 0.05) by SL327 (100 mg/kg, i.p.), an inhibitor of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation. The present findings demonstrate that the enhancement of total TH expression and the increase of the phosphorylation state of TH during morphine withdrawal are dependent on PKA and ERK and suggest that these transduction pathways might contribute to the activation of the cardiac catecholaminergic neurons in response to morphine- withdrawal.

CPAP and measures of cardiovascular risk in males with OSAS.

Obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome (OSAS) has been associated with hypertension, stroke and myocardial ischaemia in epidemiological and observational studies. Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) is the treatment of choice for OSAS, but the impact of this intervention on established risk factors for cardiovascular disease remains incompletely understood. A total of 102 males with moderate-to-severe OSAS were randomised to therapeutic (n = 51) or subtherapeutic (n = 51) CPAP treatment for 4 weeks to investigate the effects of active treatment on 24-h urinary catecholamine excretion, baroreflex sensitivity (BRS), arterial stiffness (augmentation index) and 24-h ambulatory blood pressure (ABP). After 4 weeks of therapeutic CPAP, significant reductions were seen in urine normetanephrine excretion (from mean+/-sd 179.7+/-80.1 to 132.7+/-46.5 micromol x mol(-1) creatinine) and augmentation index (from 14.5+/-11.3 to 9.1+/-13.8%) compared with the subtherapeutic control group. Furthermore, therapeutic CPAP significantly improved BRS (from 7.1+/-3.3 to 8.8+/-4.2 ms x mmHg(-1)) and reduced mean arterial ABP by 2.6+/-5.4 mmHg. In conclusion, treatment of obstructive sleep apnoea with continuous positive airway pressure may lower cardiovascular risk by reducing sympathetic nerve activity, ambulatory blood pressure and arterial stiffness and by increasing sensitivity of the arterial baroreflex.

Inhibition of uptake 2 (or extraneuronal monoamine transporter) by normetanephrine potentiates the neurochemical effects of venlafaxine.

Two distinct norepinephrine (NE) transporter mechanisms (uptake 1 and uptake 2) regulate extracellular NE concentrations. An association has been observed between the gradual improvement in patients treated with antidepressants that inhibit the NE transporter (NET/uptake 1) and increases in urinary normetanephrine, the O-methylated NE metabolite and potent inhibitor of uptake 2. These observations led to the hypothesis that increased levels of normetanephrine, and consequently inhibition of uptake 2, may partly be responsible for the clinical efficacy of some antidepressants. To investigate this hypothesis, we employed microdialysis techniques in the rat frontal cortex to monitor extracellular changes in normetanephrine following chronic administration of the clinically effective antidepressant, venlafaxine (a serotonin (5-HT) and NE reuptake inhibitor). We evaluated the neurochemical effects of inhibiting uptake 2 alone, or in conjunction with venlafaxine, on extracellular levels of NE and 5-HT. Chronic venlafaxine administration (14 days, 10 mg/kg, s.c.) elicited significant increases in cortical NE and 5-HT while producing a non-significant trend to increase cortical levels of normetanephrine. Additional studies revealed that combining normetanephrine with venlafaxine (10 mg/kg, i.p.), at a dose of normetanephrine (10 mg/kg, i.p.) that did not produce changes in extracellular levels of NE on its own, potentiated antidepressant-induced increases in extracellular NE. We also report mouse behavioral data involving the tail suspension test that complement the neurochemical observations. These preclinical findings, taken together, suggest that inhibiting both uptake 1 and uptake 2 via venlafaxine and normetanephrine, respectively, elicits a greater increase in cortical levels of NE than inhibiting either transporter alone.