Conscious surgery: influence of the environment on patient anxiety.

AIMS: This paper is a report of a study: (i) to investigate anxiety arising from the experience of the clinical environment during surgery under local/regional anaesthesia and (ii) to uncover the specific aspects patients find anxiety provoking and possibly dissuade them from opting for such anaesthesia. BACKGROUND: Operating theatre staff have focused historically on conducting safe, efficient surgery with unconscious patients and not primarily on the care of 'awake' patients. However, with the rise in day surgery, the volume of surgery performed under local or regional anaesthesia is increasing. METHOD: As part of a larger study investigating anxiety in elective day surgery, a questionnaire was given to 523 patients on the day of surgery to adult patients undergoing surgery with local or regional anaesthesia between 2005 and 2007. They were asked to return this by mail 24-48 hours following surgery and 214 completed questionnaires were returned (response rate 41%). FINDINGS: The experience of being awake, possibly feeling the surgeon's touch, seeing their body cut open or surgery being more painful than expected were anxiety-provoking aspects. Using factor analysis, 'intra-operative apprehension', 'anaesthetic information provision' and 'health control' were identified as central features. Multiple regression showed that apprehension associated with the intra-operative experience and anaesthetic information provision were statistically significantly associated with an increase in overall level of anxiety. CONCLUSION: Focusing care on managing the intra-operative experience and providing anaesthetic information in advance might help limit anxiety and expel the apparent misapprehensions associated with conscious surgery.

[Evaluation of stress in surgical trainees: prospective study of heart rate during laparoscopic cholecystectomy]. / Stress des chirurgiens en formation: Etude prospective de la cardio-fréquence lors de cholécystectomies laparoscopiques.

INTRODUCTION: Surgical training is stressful, particularly in the operating room setting. The purpose of the study is to evaluate and quantitate intra-operative stress in surgical trainees. MATERIAL: and methods: Cardiac rate was used as a measure of stress during surgical cases; surgical residents serving as the primary surgeon and assistant during 21 laparoscopic cholecystectomies underwent telemetry monitoring. RESULTS: Intra-operative cardiac rate increased by 4-10%, particularly in the resident serving as primary surgeon. The most stressful moments of the procedure were the draping of the surgical field, trocar placement, clip application, and extraction of the gallbladder. CONCLUSION: This study offers a measure of the stress of surgical residents in the operating room. Heart rate is not the ideal parameter of stress, yet it gives a good idea of the level of stress. The identification of stress-inducing factors may help residents to deal with difficult situations.

[Video-assisted patient education in anaesthesiology: possibilities and limits of a new procedure for improvement of patient information]. / Videoassistierte Patientenaufklärung in der Anästhesiologie: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen eines neuen Verfahrens zur Verbesserung der Patienteninformation.

In video-assisted patient education (ViPa), patients watch an educational video about the process and the risks of anaesthesia in addition to the preanaesthetic interview with the anaesthesiologist. Used as a supplement to the preanaesthetic visit, the videos can increase patients' knowledge and satisfaction without having any negative effect on perioperative anxiety. Because the video graphically depicts the basic information, the preanaesthetic visit can then focus on specific aspects of the individual patient, i.e. high anxiety or specific questions. The redundant and monotonous explanations about the procedures and risks of anaesthesia by the interviewing anaesthesiologist are partly replaced by the video, but for medico-legal reasons the ViPa cannot totally replace the preanesthetic interview. It can be used in pediatric anaesthesia and reduces parental anxiety. Because of the lack of studies, the effects of the ViPa on perioperative patient compliance, especially for outpatient surgery, and on the economics of anaesthesia clinics are unclear.

What's in a "smile?" Intra-operative observations of contralateral smiles induced by deep brain stimulation.

OBJECTIVE: To describe smiling and euphoria induced by deep brain stimulation (DBS). BACKGROUND AND SIGNIFICANCE: The brain systems inducing emotional experiences and displays are not entirely known, but the ventral striatum including the nucleus accumbens has been posited to play a critical role in mediating emotions with positive valence. DBS has been successfully employed for the treatment of movement disorders, and most recently obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). The purpose of this report is to describe the emotional changes associated with stimulation of the ventral striatum. METHODS: A single patient with intractable OCD had electrode arrays placed in the right and left anterior limbs of the internal capsule and region of the nucleus accumbens. Changes in facial movement during stimulation were quantified by video recording. Ten video segments, time locked to the onset of stimulation, were digitized and changes in pixel intensity that occurred over both sides of the lower face, on a frame by frame basis, following stimulation onset were computed. These summed changes in pixel intensity represented the dependent variable of "entropy" and directly corresponded to changes in light reflectance that occur during facial movement. RESULTS: During stimulation on both the right and left side, the patient consistently developed a half smile on the side of the face contralateral to the stimulating electrode, and also became euphoric. The effect ceased when DBS was discontinued. CONCLUSIONS: DBS in the region of the nucleus accumbens produced smile and euphoria suggesting that alterations in the ventral striatum may result in emotional experience and displays. We hypothesize the existence of a limbic-motor network responsible for such changes. This observation suggests that DBS may be useful as a therapy for mood disorders.

Perioperative anxiety and postoperative behavioural disturbances in children undergoing intravenous or inhalation induction of anaesthesia.

BACKGROUND: There are few published data comparing the psychological effects of intravenous (i.v.) and inhalation methods of anaesthesia induction in children. In the present study, we compared perioperative anxiety and postoperative behavioural changes in children undergoing standardized i.v. induction with thiopental and inhalation induction with sevoflurane for routine ear, nose and throat surgery. METHODS: Children were randomly assigned to receive inhalation induction with sevoflurane or i.v. induction with thiopental. Anxiety was assessed on arrival, at induction and 30 min after transfer to the recovery room using a four-point scale. The incidence of postoperative behavioural disturbances was determined using a postoperative questionnaire. RESULTS: Significantly more children were anxious during induction in the i.v. group than in the inhalation group [23 of 50 (46%) versus 5 of 50 (10%); P = 0.0001]. Mean induction time was shorter (5.6 versus 7.0 min; P = 0.0001) and recovery time longer (30.5 versus 10.4 min; P = 0.0001) in the i.v. group compared with the inhalation group. Problematic behavioural changes were reported in the first 2 weeks after surgery in nine of 32 children (28%) in the i.v. group and 16 of 34 (48%) children in the inhalation group (P = 0.13). CONCLUSIONS: Although children were more anxious during i.v. induction than inhalation induction, there was no difference in the incidence of behavioural disturbances in the first 2 weeks postoperatively.

Evaluation of the effect of cognitive therapy on perioperative anxiety and depression among Nigerian surgical patients.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Surgical paients have been known to benefit immensely from psychological interventions. This study set out to assess the pre and postoperative anxiety levels and depression and the effect of cognitive therapy among Nigerian surgical patients. The effects of gender and educational status on perioperative anxiety and depression were also evaluated. STUDY DESIGN: The study utilized a controlled outcome design to evaluate the efficacy of self-instructional training (SIT) and rational emotive therapy (RET) in surgical patients. Preoperative anxiety and depression scores were used as co-variants. PATIENTS: Thirty-three (33) elective surgical patients were sampled randomly, divided into 3 groups of eleven (11) patients each. Eight (8) subjects underwent gynaecological procedures while the remaining 25 subjects had general surgical procedures. The mean age was 32.72 +/- 15.83 years (range = 17-16 years.) MEASUREMENTS: The major instruments used in the study were the State Anxiety Subscale of the Speilberger State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Inventory. MAIN RESULTS: SIT had the potential to reduce anxiety level among subjects postoperatively (t = 2.06; df = 10; p < 0.05). The use of RET reduced depression among surgical patients (t = 1.23; df = 10; p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: It was concluded that surgical patients manifest varying degrees of anxiety preoperatively and postoperatively. Patient's pre and postoperative anxiety and depression can be reduced by the introduction of SIT and RET.

Implicit memory for words played during isoflurane- or propofol-based anesthesia: the lexical decision task.

BACKGROUND: Unconscious processing of words during general anesthesia has been suggested after surgery with several tests of implicit memory. Patients can neither recall those words nor do they have explicit memories of other intraoperative events. It is unclear to what degree information is processed during general anesthesia and which tests are best suited to detect implicit memory. In the current study, a lexical decision paradigm not previously used to demonstrate implicit memory during anesthesia was used. METHODS: Sixty patients undergoing lumbar disc surgery were assigned to receive isoflurane infusion- or propofol infusion-based anesthesia combined with alfentanil infusions and a nitrous oxide-oxygen mixture. A control group of 10 medical students listened to tapes without receiving anesthesia. Two tapes, each containing a list of 30 low-frequency German nouns repeated for 15 min, were prepared, with half of the patients listening to tape A and the other half listening to tape B during the operation. Exposure time was 15 min from the time of skin incision onward. In the test phase, approximately 7 h later, words from lists A and B plus 60 nonwords were presented in random order by a computer program. Subjects were asked to indicate, by pressing one of two response buttons, whether the spoken word was or was not a legal German word (lexical decision). RESULTS: A recognition test revealed chance recognition for words presented during anesthesia. Lexical decision responses, however, were slightly faster to primed (previously presented) words than to unprimed (not previously presented) words when the entire group of patients was tested, suggesting a small implicit memory effect, which barely failed to reach the significance level. When the two medication groups were tested separately, no significant implicit memory effect could be ascertained statistically. The effects of previous exposure were much more pronounced in the control group. CONCLUSIONS: Balanced anesthesia techniques with isoflurane or propofol lead to only a minimal, statistically borderline implicit memory effect in the lexical decision paradigm.

Assessment of the effects of a taped cognitive behavior message on postoperative complications (therapeutic suggestions under anesthesia).

BACKGROUND: The authors studied whether playing a taped cognitive-behavior message during and immediately following bariatric surgery will improve performance of a postoperative regimen designed to enhance recovery. METHODS: The double-blinded placebo-controlled study consisted of 27 morbidly obese bariatric surgical patients randomly assigned to listen to either a blank (Controls) or a positive therapeutic message audiotape (Tape). A Postoperative Regimen Checklist (PRC) quantified different parts of the postoperative recovery regimen. RESULTS: The data showed that patients in the Tape group, compared to the Controls: 1) achieved better scores at most PRC assessment points (p < 0.05), 2) required less encouragement to perform tasks (p < 0.05), and 3) were discharged from the hospital a mean of 1.6 days earlier. CONCLUSIONS: A taped cognitive-behavioral message, played to patients repetitively during and immediately following bariatric surgery, is effective in enhancing postoperative compliance and reducing in-patient length of stay.

Sensory stimuli and anxiety in children undergoing surgery: a randomized, controlled trial.

UNLABELLED: We assessed the effectiveness of a behavioral intervention aimed at reducing the anxiety of children undergoing anesthesia and surgery. The intervention consisted of dimmed operating room (OR) lights (200 Lx) and soft background music (Bach's "Air on a G String," 50-60 dB). Only one person, the attending anesthesiologist, interacted with the child during the induction of anesthesia. Children undergoing anesthesia and surgery were randomly assigned either to a low sensory stimulation group (LSSG, n = 33) or to control group (n = 37). By using validated behavioral measures of anxiety (mYPAS) and compliance (ICC), children were evaluated at the preoperative holding area and during the induction of anesthesia. On postoperative Days 1, 2, 3, 7, and 14, the behavioral recovery of the children was assessed by using the Post Hospitalization Behavior Questionnaire. We found that the LSSG was significantly less anxious compared with the control group on entrance to the OR (P = 0.03) and on the introduction of the anesthesia mask (P = 0.003). Also, the compliance during the induction of anesthesia was significantly better in children assigned to the LSSG (P = 0.02). The incidence of postoperative behavioral changes, however, did not differ significantly between the two groups (P = ns). We conclude that children who are exposed to low-level sensory stimuli during the induction of anesthesia and who are exposed to background music exhibit lower levels of anxiety and increased compliance. IMPLICATIONS: Children are less anxious and show increased compliance during induction when exposed to a single care-provider in a dimmed, quiet operating room with background music.

Intraoperative progress reports to families of surgical clients: a missed opportunity.

The wait while a family member or loved one is undergoing surgery is stressful and anxiety-producing. Perioperative nursing contact during this period can result in positive outcomes of decreased anxiety, increased receptivity to postoperative information, and increased awareness of the professional practice. Perioperative nurses have the skills and the opportunity to provide progress reports to the client's family, at least once during surgery. Characteristics important to this role include motivation and commitment to be informative; caring; sensitivity and perceptivity; sense of humour; and education. Possible barriers to intraoperative communications include various lacks--of time; attention (related to monitoring requirements in the operating room); support from management, peers, and doctors; and therapeutic communication skills to alleviate anxiety. Progress reports to the family can decrease their physical stress and add to their satisfaction with the hospital.

Anterograde and retrograde memory in children anesthetized with propofol.

Prior to anesthesia with propofol for gastrointestinal endoscopy, sets of pictures were presented to 20 children and adolescents (M age = 12 years). Word pairs (e.g., "hiking-woods") were presented via earphones after the children were anesthetized. Upon regaining consciousness, the children were tested for explicit memory of both the picture sets and word pairs by free recall, cued recall, and yes/no recognition. Implicit memory was tested by free association to category cues for the pictures and by word association for the word pairs. Postoperative testing revealed retrograde memory for material presented preoperatively but total amnesia for material presented intraoperatively. There was no evidence of implicit memory for material not available explicitly. The finding of uninterrupted ability to retain and retrieve information presented prior to anesthesia despite total anterograde amnesia has implications for preoperative communication directed toward pediatric patients as well as for intraoperative communication among surgical staff.

[Hormonal, immune and metabolic status in intraoperative injury in the course of electrical stimulation with propofol]. / Gormonal'nyi, immunnyi i metabolicheskii status pri operatsionnoi travme v usloviiakh élektrovozdeistviia c propofolom.

There are presented the results of complex examination of neurohumoral and immune systems in patients, operated in conditions of electroimpact with propofol. Were determined the significant reduction of quantity and redistribution of activated lymphocytes, the rise of secondary immunodeficiency state while preservation of stable indexes of neuroendocrine system.

Surgical stress induces a marked and sustained increase of adrenal androgen secretion in postmenopausal women.

We analyzed the secretion of adrenal androgens in response to surgical stress in eight (8) postmenopausal women. ACTH, cortisol (F) and adrenal androgens, such as dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), delta 4-androstendione (delta 4-A), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) and testosterone (T) were measured at 08:00 and 20:00 hr the day before and for three consecutive days after operation, as well as at 0, 15, 30, 60, 120 minutes during cholocystectomy. Basal levels of ACTH, F, DHEA, delta 4-A, DHEA-S and T were found within the normal range for this age group before surgery. During surgery the ACTH was significantly increased, reaching a peak value at 30 min after surgery initiation. F, DHEA and delta 4-A were significantly increased during and after surgery, returning to pre-surgery levels by the third day post-surgery. DHEA-S levels did not increase during surgery but was found significantly increased the day after surgery, returning to presurgical levels two days later. We conclude that surgical stress can induce adrenal androgen hypersecretion during and within the early days post-surgery. Because the adrenal androgens levels are declining and respond suboptimally to exogenous corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) or ACTH bolus injection in aging women, it is conceivable that this remarkable response of adrenal androgens to surgical stress is probably of biological significance and conceivably mediated by a CRH/ACTH-independent mechanism.

Pre-operative [correction of Properative] psychological variables predict immunological status in patients with operable breast cancer.

UNLABELLED: In a prospective study of psychobiological responses in patients with operable breast cancer, psychological data were collected one day before surgery and immunological data one day before and seven days after surgery. OBJECTIVES: Explore psychoimmunological correlates related to primary surgical treatment of women with operable breast cancer. METHOD: Distress was assessed with Impact of Event Scale (IES), depression with Montgomery-Aasberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS), coping with Mental Adjustment to Cancer (MAC) scale, emotional suppression with Courtauld Emotional Control scale (CECS) and neuroticism with EPQ-N. Number of lymphocytes and subsets of lymphocytes were analyzed using a flow-cytometric method. RESULTS: Intrusive anxiety and anxious preoccupation were statistically significant inversely correlated to number of lymphocytes, B, T total and T4 lymphocytes and depression to B and T4 lymphocytes using Bonferroni's correction for multiple testing. Multivariate analyses including menopausal status, type of surgery and health behaviour variables demonstrated an independent, inverse effect of depression on total number of lymphocytes, T total and T4 lymphocytes 7 days after surgery. Pre-post immune changes were influenced reversely by depression (decreased) and intrusion (increased). CONCLUSIONS: Psychological parameters have a statistically significant impact on the number of lymphocytes and subsets of lymphocytes.

Information processing during general anesthesia: evidence for unconscious memory.

Memory for words presented during general anesthesia was studied in two experiments. In Experiment 1, surgical patients (n = 80) undergoing elective procedures under general anesthesia were presented shortly before and during surgery with words via headphones. At the earliest convenient time after surgery (within 5 h) and 24 h later, memory was tested by asking patients to complete auditorily presented word stems with the first word that came to mind and to leave out words they remembered having heard earlier (exclusion task). Moreover, patients were requested to perform a "yes/no" forced-choice recognition task to assess recognition memory for both the pre- and intraoperative words. Memory for the material presented during anesthesia was demonstrated immediately after surgery and 24 h later by means of both tasks. In a second similar experiment (n = 80), the results were replicated. These findings show that anesthetized patients can process information that was presented intraoperatively.

Use of the Threat Index with family members waiting during surgery.

We describe the use of the 40-item Threat Index (TI) with family members (N = 206) of surgical patients who also completed Templer's (1970) Death Anxiety Scale, the Death-of-Self and Dying-of-Self subscales of the Collett-Lester (1969) Fear of Death Scale, and the Death Acceptance subscale of Reker and Peacock's (1992) Life Attitude Profile-Revised. Word sets from the 40-item TI that are part of the 25- and 7-item versions of the TI produced strong alphas and correlations to their parent instrument. Regression analyses indicated that self/ideal-self scores and previous experience as a hospital patient were significantly associated with TI scores. We conclude that if the time available for completion and scoring of the TI is limited, the shorter versions can be used, although their alpha strengths are slightly lower than that of the full TI and the respondent's age influences the scores.