Molecular epidemiological and clinical infection characteristics analysis of Ralstonia.

PURPOSE: This study was to clarify the molecular epidemiology and clinical infection characteristics of Ralstonia pickettii and establish sequence typing system. METHODS: 48 nonrepetitive Ralstonia pickettii strains were collected from January 2008 to December 2013 at the Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital (PLAGH) and were identified through a specific PCR experiment, 16 S rDNA experiment and VITEK 2 system to compare the identification accuracy. The sequence types of the strains were analyzed by multilocus sequence typing (MLST) method. The antibiotic sensitivity of these strains was determined with disc diffusion tests and broth microdilution method. The clinical data of Ralstonia pickettii infected patients were collected. RESULTS: All of the 48 strains were identified as Ralstonia pickettii by VITEK 2 system. 30 and 34 strains were identified as Ralstonia pickettii by PCR and 16 S rDNA experiment respectively. ST9 was the most sequence types (STs) in these 18 STs of 42 strains. 42 strains were divided into 2 groups (A and B) and 18 genotypes. Ralstonia pickettii was sensitive to some cephalosporins, ß-lactam/ß-lactamase inhibitor, levofloxacin and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole. Cough, sputum, shortness of breath and pulmonary rales were the common clinical symptoms of most Ralstonia pickettii infected patients. CONCLUSION: We established a sequence typing system with a relatively fine resolution and the PCR assay is a faster and more sensitive method for clinical identification of Ralstonia pickettii. ST9 is the most common sequence types of Ralstonia pickettii. The most common clinical characteristics of Ralstonia pickettii infected patients were cough, sputum, shortness of breath and pulmonary rales.

Ralstonia pickettii bloodstream infections with potential genomic link to internationally distributed contaminated saline solution, Germany, October 2023.

Ralstonia pickettii is a Gram-negative rod which may cause invasive infections when they contaminate liquid medical products. After R. pickettii was detected in blood cultures and a stem cell product from three patients in a tertiary care hospital in Germany, whole genome sequencing of these three isolates and two water isolates from the environment was performed. Core genome multilocus sequence typing analysis showed that the three patient isolates were closely related and there was a large distance to the environmental isolates. In a genomic comparison, the patients' isolates were distantly related to an R. pickettii strain from a cluster in Australia suspected to be caused by contaminated saline produced in India, while all liquid medical products with a link to all patients were produced in Europe or the United States. Our data point towards an ongoing risk by an unknown common source that could be traced back to medical products contaminated with R. pickettii and potentially distributed worldwide. Investigating invasive R. pickettii infections, identifying and testing medical products administered to the patients and timely whole genome sequencing may help identify the exact source of this potentially global outbreak.

An outbreak of Ralstonia pickettii bloodstream infection and clinical outcomes.

INTRODUCTION: Ralstonia pickettii infections are rare and may be mistaken for other bacteria. This study aims to report a hospital outbreak of R. pickettii at a tertiary hospital, which was initially misidentified as Ralstonia insidiosa, along with its clinical consequences. METHODOLOGY: A bacteraemia outbreak occurred between August 14 and October 4, 2019, infecting 22 patients admitted to diverse intensive care units. All isolates were identified with the use of the automated VITEK 2 Compact system and were then subjected to a microbial identification system, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). Bacterial identification and genomic DNA typing was made using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Investigation covered all potential sources of the outbreak. RESULTS: An index patient and five additional patients developed fever while receiving care. Blood cultures of these patients yielded R. insidiosa by the VITEK 2 Compact system. Culture isolates were then submitted to a reference centre for confirmation by the MALDI-TOF MS system, where the bacterium turned out to be R. pickettii. No pathogen was isolated in the commercial products except for three samples of unopened sterile distilled water. Despite its discontinuation, 16 new cases were identified, in which blood cultures grew R. pickettii by the MALDI-TOF MS system. Attempts to uncover the source of the outbreak failed. Clinical manifestation was confined to fever in all the patients. CONCLUSIONS: During this outbreak, R. pickettii infections ran a relatively mild course without clinical deterioration or mortality, possibly due to low virulence.

Oxacillinases and antimicrobial susceptibility of Ralstonia pickettii from pharmaceutical water systems in Croatia.

This study evaluated antibiotic susceptibility and presence of blaOXA22 and blaOXA60 genes in 81 isolates of Ralstonia pickettii obtained from different purified and ultra-pure water systems in two different geographical areas of Croatia. E-test and disc diffusion test were performed to determine antibiotic susceptibility. Polymerase chain reaction was applied to detect genes encoding OXA-22 and OXA-60 oxacillinases previously identified in R. pickettii. The isolates were genotyped by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. The results revealed variable susceptibility/resistance profiles. Our isolates exhibited high susceptibility rates to ceftriaxone, cefotaxime, piperacillin-tazobactam, ciprofloxacin, imipenem, cefepime and in lesser extent to ceftazidime. High rates of susceptibility were also observed for sulphamethoxazole-trimethoprim and piperacillin. High resistance rates were noticed for ticarcillin-clavulanate, aztreonam and meropenem, as well as for all aminoglycosides tested. Modified Hodge test was positive in 51·9% strains, indicating production of carbapenemases. blaOXA22 and blaOXA60 genes were detected in 37·0 and 80·3% strains, respectively. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis identified three major clusters containing subclusters. R. pickettii should be taken seriously as a possible cause of nosocomial infections to ensure adequate therapy, to prevent the development of resistant strains and to try to reduce the possibility of R. pickettii surviving in clean and ultra clean water systems.

[Rapid identification of Ralstonia pickettii using PCR-nucleic acid test strips].

OBJECTIVE: To develop a method for rapid detection of Ralstonia pickettii in water for pharmaceutical purpose using PCR-nucleic acid test strips. METHODS: The genomic DNA of Ralstonia pickettii was extracted by boiling method. A pair of specific primers targeting the 16S rDNA with FITC and biotin labeling of the 5' ends was designed and cloned into competent E. coli DH5α cells. The nucleic acid test strips were assembled, and the workload of streptavidin labeled with colloidal gold and antibody concentration in the reaction system was optimized. After verification of the reaction mechanism and assessment of the test sensitivity, specificity and stability, the test strip was used for detecting 7 known strains of Ralstonia pickettii detected in pharmaceutical water, and an evolutionary tree was constructed to analyze the source of contamination. RESULTS: The genomic DNA extracted by boiling method had a purity between 1.8 and 2.0, and the PCR products showed a 100% similarity of with Ralstonia pickettii 16S rDNA registered in GenBank. Using the colloidal gold amplification principle, in every 100 µL colloidal gold solution, 3.5 µL streptavidin was added; the detection line on nitrocellulose membrane was 2.0 mg·mL-1 anti FITC antibody, and the quality control line was 1.2 mg · mL-1 biotinylated BSA, and they generate a red band after binding with positive amplification product. Specificity test of the assembled test strip yielded consistent result with agarose gel electrophoresis without cross reaction with Acinetobacter, Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, or Leclercia adecarboxylata. Sensitivity test of the strip showed a lower detection limit for DNA concentration of 10-5 ng/µL, with a sensitivity 1000 times that of agarose gel electrophoresis. The test strip still had good performance after storage for 3, 6, 9 and 12 months. CONCLUSION: We successfully developed a PCR-nucleic acid test strip for convenient and cost-effective detection of Ralstonia pickettii with good specificity and sensitivity and low cost to facilitate daily monitoring of pharmaceutical water contaminations.

Evolution of gentamicin and arsenite resistance acquisition in Ralstonia pickettii water isolates.

Ralstonia pickettii are ubiquitous in water environments. Members of this species are frequently, but not always, resistant to both gentamicin and arsenite. Gentamicin and arsenite co-resistance and the putative molecular mechanisms were investigated. A group of 37 R. pickettii strains isolated from drinking water and hospital wastewater were characterized for gentamicin and arsenite resistance phenotypes, the number and size of plasmids, and screened for genetic elements associated with arsenite tolerance, Integrative and Conjugative Elements (ICEs), among other. The genomes of three representative strains were compared. Most gentamicin resistant (GR) isolates (32/33) were resistant to arsenite, and harbored ICE- and ars operon-related genes. These genetic elements were not detected in any of the five arsenite susceptible strains, regardless of the GR (n = 1) or gentamicin susceptibility (GS) (n = 4) phenotype. The comparison of the genomes of two GR (one resistant and one susceptible to arsenite) and one GS strains suggested that these phenotypes correspond to three phylogroups, distinguished by presence of some genes only in GR isolates, in addition to point mutations in functional genes. The presence of ICEs and ars operon-related genes suggest that arsenite resistance might have been acquired by GR lineages.

Disrupted tongue microbiota and detection of nonindigenous bacteria on the day of allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.

Disruption of the intestinal microbiota caused by intensive chemotherapy, irradiation and antibiotics can result in development of severe gut graft-versus-host disease and infectious complications, leading to poorer outcomes among allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) recipients. Although the oral cavity is also densely colonized by indigenous microorganisms, the bacterial composition in allo-HSCT recipients remains unclear. We determined the tongue microbiota composition of 45 patients with hematological disorders on the day of transplantation and compared them to 164 community-dwelling adults. The V1-V2 regions of the 16S rRNA gene sequences demonstrated that the allo-HSCT recipients had less diverse and distinct microbiota from that of community-dwelling adults. The full-length 16S rRNA gene sequences identified 146 bacterial taxa in the microbiota of allo-HSCT recipients, of which 34 bacterial taxa did not correspond to bacteria primarily inhabiting the oral cavity deposited in the expanded Human Oral Microbiome Database. Notably, the detection of Staphylococcus haemolyticus and/or Ralstonia pickettii was significantly associated with a higher risk of mortality during the follow-up period. These results demonstrate that the oral cavity of allo-HSCT recipients is colonized by a disrupted microbiota on the day of transplantation and suggest that detection of specific nonindigenous taxa could be a predictor of transplant outcome.

A polyamine-independent role for S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase.

The only known function of S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase (AdoMetDC) is to supply, with its partner aminopropyltransferase enzymes such as spermidine synthase (SpdSyn), the aminopropyl donor for polyamine biosynthesis. Polyamine spermidine is probably essential for the growth of all eukaryotes, most archaea and many bacteria. Two classes of AdoMetDC exist, the prokaryotic class 1a and 1b forms, and the eukaryotic class 2 enzyme, which is derived from an ancient fusion of two prokaryotic class 1b genes. Herein, we show that 'eukaryotic' class 2 AdoMetDCs are found in bacteria and are enzymatically functional. However, the bacterial AdoMetDC class 2 genes are phylogenetically limited and were likely acquired from a eukaryotic source via transdomain horizontal gene transfer, consistent with the class 2 form of AdoMetDC being a eukaryotic invention. We found that some class 2 and thousands of class 1b AdoMetDC homologues are present in bacterial genomes that also encode a gene fusion of an N-terminal membrane protein of the Major Facilitator Superfamily (MFS) class of transporters and a C-terminal SpdSyn-like domain. Although these AdoMetDCs are enzymatically functional, spermidine is absent, and an entire fusion protein or its SpdSyn-like domain only, does not biochemically complement a SpdSyn deletion strain of E. coli This suggests that the fusion protein aminopropylates a substrate other than putrescine, and has a role outside of polyamine biosynthesis. Another integral membrane protein found clustered with these genes is DUF350, which is also found in other gene clusters containing a homologue of the glutathionylspermidine synthetase family and occasionally other polyamine biosynthetic enzymes.

A Genetically Encoded Biosensor for Monitoring Isoprene Production in Engineered Escherichia coli.

Isoprene is a valuable precursor for synthetic rubber and a signature product of terpenoid pathways. Here, we developed an isoprene biosensor by employing a TbuT transcriptional regulator of Ralstonia pickettii to express a fluorescent reporter gene in response to intracellular isoprene in engineered Escherichia coli. The TbuT regulator recognizes isoprene as its less-preferred effector molecule; thus, we amplified the reporter gene expression using a T7 RNA polymerase-mediated transcriptional cascade and iteratively tuned the promoter transcribing tbuT to improve the sensitivity for detecting isoprene. When the engineered E. coli cells expressed heterologous genes for isoprene biosynthesis, the intracellular isoprene was expelled and the tbuT transcription factor was subsequently activated, leading to gfp expression. The chromosomal isoprene biosensor showed a linear correlation between GFP fluorescence and intracellular isoprene concentration. Using this chromosomal isoprene biosensor, we successfully identified the highest isoprene producer among four different E. coli strains producing different amounts of isoprene. The isoprene biosensor presented here can enable high-throughput screening of isoprene synthases and metabolic pathways for efficient and sustainable production of bioisoprene in engineered microbes.

Biosorption characteristics of a highly Mn(II)-resistant Ralstonia pickettii strain isolated from Mn ore.

Microorganisms play an important role in immobilizing and detoxifying excessive Mn; however, there is so far a lack of sufficient information concerning highly Mn(II)-tolerant bacteria. The present study was conducted to analyze the bio-sorption characteristics of a strain (HM8) isolated from manganese ore wastes. Analytical data from the 16S rDNA sequence determination showed that the species, HM8, had a 99% similarity to Ralstonia pickettii. Results from the designed physiological, biochemical and isothermal adsorption tests indicated that HM8 did not only grow well at a Mn(II) concentration level of 10,000 mg/L but also removed 1,002.83 mg/L of Mn(II) from the bulk solution of the culture, showing that the isolated strain possessed strong capabilities to tolerate and remove Mn(II). In the isothermal bio-sorption experiments performed to investigate the effects of relevant factors on Mn(II) sorption, the highest Mn(II) removal rate was obtained at the contact time 72 h, temperature 40°C, and pH 6.0, while the differences in both strain growth and Mn(II) removal rate between different inoculated HM8 doses were found to be insignificant within the tested range. Scanning electron microscopy showed that, under Mn(II) stress, HM8 cells appeared irregular and cracked, with apparent wrinkles on the surface. The peaks in the Fourier transform infrared spectra showed that hydroxyl and carboxyl groups were the main functional groups for Mn(II) adsorption. The experimental data supported the practical application of HM8 as a biological adsorbent for remediation of heavily Mn contaminated sites.

RpA, an extracellular protease similar to the metalloprotease of serralysin family, is required for pathogenicity of Ralstonia pickettii.

AIM: To investigate the biochemical and functional properties of an extracellular protease, RpA, in Ralstonia pickettii WP1 isolated from water supply systems. METHODS AND RESULTS: An extracellular protease was identified and characterized from R. pickettii WP1. A mutant strain WP1M2 was created from strain WP1 by mini-Tn5 transposition. The culture filtrates from WP1M2 had a lower cytotoxic effect than the parental WP1 on several mammalian cell lines. Cloning and sequence analysis revealed the Tn5 transposon inserted at a protease gene (rpA) which is 81% homologous to prtA and aprX genes of Pseudomonas fluorescens. The rpA gene encodes a 482-residue protein showing sequence similarity to metalloproteases of the serralysin family. The RpA protein was expressed in Escherichia coli using a pET expression vector and purified as a 55 kDa molecular weight protein. Furthermore, the protease activity of RpA was inhibited by protease inhibitor and heat treatment. CONCLUSIONS: The in vitro cytotoxic activity of R. pickettii culture filtrates was attributed to RpA protease. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: An extracellular protease, RpA, was identified from R. pickettii WP1 isolated from water supply system. The RpA metalloproteases is required for the pathogenicity of R. pickettii to mammalian cell lines.

Effects of mutation at position 285 of Ralstonia pickettii T1 poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate] depolymerase on its activities.

Asn at position 285 (N285) in the catalytic domain of poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate] (PHB) depolymerase from Ralstonia pickettii T1 most likely participates in the cleavage of ester bonds as revealed by our previous evolutionary engineering study using the error-prone polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method. To exhaustively examine the effects of mutations at that position, we conducted site-directed saturation mutagenesis at that position and the resultant mutant enzymes (N285X) were evaluated in p-nitrophenyl ester (pNPCn) hydrolysis and PHB degradation. Kinetic studies demonstrated that the PHB-degrading activities of N285X were reciprocally related to their pNPCn-hydrolyzing activities, with the exception of N285A and N285G, and that His residue could functionally substitute for Asn285 on PHB degradation.

Transcriptional repression of the poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) depolymerase in Ralstonia pickettii T1 by a tetR-like gene.

Ralstonia pickettii T1 secretes a poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) depolymerase (PhaZ) and a 3-hydroxybutyrate (3HB)-oligomer hydrolase, and extracellularly degrades PHB to produce 3HB. However, it is not clear how the expression of phaZ is regulated. In this study, the mechanism by which phaZ expression is controlled in R. pickettii T1 was examined using a mutant made by the random insertion of a transposon, Tn5. The mutant produced a larger amount of PhaZ than the wild type in nutrient broth or a minimal salt (SM) medium supplemented with succinate. However, there was essentially no difference in the activity or amount of PhaZ in the culture supernatant between the wild type and mutant when the two were grown on 3HB. The gene disrupted by the insertion of Tn5 (epdR) was cloned and its nucleotide sequence was determined. In a BLAST search, epdR showed a high degree of similarity to genes for TetR transcriptional regulators of several bacteria. The introduction of epdR into the wild type and mutant grown on the three media described above decreased the amount of PhaZ. These results indicated EpdR to be involved in the repression of phaZ in R. pickettii T1. A quantitative RT-PCR analysis indicated that mRNA levels corresponded with the activity detected and the amounts of PhaZ in the wild type and mutant. Furthermore, the amount of epdR transcript was inversely proportional to the amount of phaZ transcript. In addition, the existence of a positive element acting on phaZ expression was suggested, because in the mutant lacking EpdR, the amount of phaZ transcript varied in cells grown in SM-3HB, SM-succinate or nutrient broth. Based on the above results, a model for the regulation of PhaZ expression in R. pickettii T1 is proposed.

The regulatory mechanism of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol catabolic operon expression by HadR in Ralstonia pickettii DTP0602.

Ralstonia pickettii DTP0602 utilizes 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (2,4,6-TCP) as its sole source of carbon. The expression of catabolic pathway genes (hadA, hadB and hadC) for 2,4,6-TCP has been reported to be regulated by the LysR-type transcriptional regulator (LTTR) HadR. Generally, coinducers are recognized as being important for the function of LTTRs, and alteration of the LTTR-protection sequence and the degree of DNA bending are characteristic of LTTRs with or without a recognized coinducer. In this study, we describe the mechanism by which HadR regulates the expression of 2,4,6-TCP catabolic genes. The 2,4,6-TCP catabolic pathway genes in DTP0602 consist of two transcriptional units: hadX-hadA-hadB-hadC and monocistronic hadR. Purified HadR binds to the hadX promoter and HadR-DNA complex formation was induced in the presence of 16 types of substituted phenols, including chloro- and nitro-phenols and tribromo-phenol. In contrast with observations of other well-characterized LTTRs, the tested phenols showed no diversity of the bending angle of the HadR binding fragment. The expression of 2,4,6-TCP catabolic pathway genes, which are regulated by HadR, was not influenced by the DNA bending angle of HadR. Moreover, the transcription of hadX, hadA and hadB was induced in the presence of seven types of substituted phenols, whereas the other substituted phenols, which induced formation of the HadR-DNA complex, did not induce the transcription of hadX, hadA or hadB in vivo.

Directed evolution of poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate] depolymerase using cell surface display system: functional importance of asparagine at position 285.

Poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate] (PHB) depolymerase from Ralstonia pickettii T1 (PhaZRpiT1) consists of three functional domains to effectively degrade solid PHB materials, and its catalytic domain catalyzes the ester bond cleavage of the substrate. We performed the directed evolution of PhaZRpiT1 targeted at the catalytic domain in combination with the cell surface display method to effectively screen for mutants with improved p-nitrophenyl butyrate (pNPC4) activity. Mutated PhaZRpiT1 genes generated by error-prone PCR were fused to the oprI gene to display them as fusion proteins on Escherichia coli cell surface. Some cells displaying the mutant enzymes showed a two- to fourfold increase in pNPC4 hydrolysis activity relative to cells displaying wild-type enzyme. These mutant genes were recombined by a staggered extension process and the recombined enzymes were displayed to result in a five- to eightfold higher pNPC4 hydrolysis activity than the wild type. To further evaluate the mutation effects, unfused and undisplayed enzymes were prepared and applied to the hydrolysis of p-nitrophenyl esters having different chain lengths (pNPCn; n = 2-6) and PHB degradation. One specific second-generation mutant showed an approximately tenfold increase in maximum rate for pNPC3 hydrolysis, although its PHB degradation efficiency at 1 µg/mL of enzyme concentration was approximately 3.5-fold lower than that of the wild type. Gene analysis showed that N285D or N285Y mutations were found in six of the seven improved second-generation mutants, indicating that Asn285 probably participates in the regulation of substrate recognition and may be more favorable for PHB degradation process than other amino acid residues.

Characterization of the survival ability of Cupriavidus metallidurans and Ralstonia pickettii from space-related environments.

Four Cupriavidus metallidurans and eight Ralstonia pickettii isolates from the space industry and the International Space Station (ISS) were characterized in detail. Nine of the 12 isolates were able to form a biofilm on plastics and all were resistant to several antibiotics. R. pickettii isolates from the surface of the Mars Orbiter prior to flight were 2.5 times more resistant to UV-C(254nm) radiation compared to the R. pickettii type strain. All isolates showed moderate to high tolerance against at least seven different metal ions. They were tolerant to medium to high silver concentrations (0.5-4 µM), which are higher than the ionic silver disinfectant concentrations measured regularly in the drinking water aboard the ISS. Furthermore, all isolates survived a 23-month exposure to 2 µM AgNO(3) in drinking water. These resistance properties are putatively encoded by their endogenous megaplasmids. This study demonstrated that extreme resistance is not required to withstand the disinfection and sterilization procedures implemented in the ISS and space industry. All isolates acquired moderate to high tolerance against several stressors and can grow in oligotrophic conditions, enabling them to persist in these environments.

Analysis of two gene clusters involved in 2,4,6-trichlorophenol degradation by Ralstonia pickettii DTP0602.

Ralstonia pickettii DTP0602 utilizes 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (2,4,6-TCP) as sole source of carbon and energy. We have characterized hadABC which is involved in the degradation of 2,4,6-TCP. To identify the other genes involved in 2,4,6-TCP degradation, the DNA sequence around hadABC was determined. A regulatory gene, hadR, homologous to the LysR-type transcriptional regulator was located upstream of hadA, but no maleylacetate (MA) reductase gene was located near hadABC. An 8.4-kb DNA fragment containing a MA reductase gene, hadD, was cloned using a DNA probe designed from the N-terminal sequence of purified MA reductase. hadD was located upstream of an open reading frame, hadS, which codes for a homolog of the LysR-type transcriptional regulator. A hadS insertion mutant, DTP62S, constitutively expressed MA reductase when grown on aspartate in the absence of 2,4,6-TCP. MA reductase was repressed in DTP62S supplemented with hadS. HadR and HadS are proposed to be a positive and a negative regulator, respectively. A draft genome sequence analysis revealed that the hadRXABC and hadSYD clusters were separated by 146-kb on the 8.1-Mb chromosome.

Surveillance of single-cell behavior in different subpopulations of Ralstonia pickettii AR1 during growth and polyhydroxybutyrate production phases by flow cytometry.

Most bacterial strains accumulate intracellular polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) granules as an energy reservoir, in response to fluctuations in their microenvironment. Flow cytometry was applied for the analysis of single cells of Ralstonia pickettii AR1 in response to changes in the culture conditions. Two parameters, the PHB production-related FL2 and side scatter (SSC) parameters, were used to monitor, distinguish and characterize different subpopulations in the growth and PHB production phases. A high SSC level was observed in the mid-log exponential growth phase. When the nitrogen source reached a limiting level, the SSC started to decrease, in contrast to the intracellular PHB granules-related FL2 parameter. The results show that ammonium limitation is a critical and important factor for the accumulation of reserve compounds. Four subpopulations were observed and distinguished upon entrance of the cells into the exponential growth phase. When the cells entered the late exponential growth or early stationary phase, two subpopulations had disappeared and only two, different subpopulations were dominant. One of the subpopulations with changed SSC and PHB production activity switched to another subpopulation that was only active in PHB production in the stationary phase. The whole cells of R. pickettii AR1 tended to form a homogeneous population at the end of the stationary phase. In fact, the changes in the subpopulations of a single strain are related to different physiological states of the cells. The observation of different subpopulations suggests that each subpopulation shows a specific response to changes in the surrounding microenvironment, nutrients and limiting factors.

Display of functionally active PHB depolymerase on Escherichia coli cell surface.

The display of PHB depolymerase (PhaZ(RpiT1) ) from R. pickettii T1 on the surface of E. coli JM109 cells is realized using OprI of P. aeruginosa as the anchoring motif. The fusion protein is stably expressed and its surface localization is verified by immunofluorescence microscopy. The displayed PhaZ(RpiT1) retains its cleaving ability for soluble substrates as well as its ability to adsorb to the PHB surface, and also remains catalycically active in the degradation of insoluble polyester materials, in spite of the possible suppression of the enzyme movement on the polymer surface. The results demonstrate that PhaZ(RpiT1) -displaying E. coli shows potential for use as a whole-cell biocatalyst for the production of (R)-3-hydroxybutyrate monomers from insoluble PHB materials.