Mathematical modelling of human P2X-mediated plasma membrane electrophysiology and calcium dynamics in microglia.

Regulation of cytosolic calcium (Ca2+) dynamics is fundamental to microglial function. Temporal and spatial Ca2+ fluxes are induced from a complicated signal transduction pathway linked to brain ionic homeostasis. In this paper, we develop a novel biophysical model of Ca2+ and sodium (Na+) dynamics in human microglia and evaluate the contribution of purinergic receptors (P2XRs) to both intracellular Ca2+ and Na+ levels in response to agonist/ATP binding. This is the first comprehensive model that integrates P2XRs to predict intricate Ca2+ and Na+ transient responses in microglia. Specifically, a novel compact biophysical model is proposed for the capture of whole-cell patch-clamp currents associated with P2X4 and P2X7 receptors, which is composed of only four state variables. The entire model shows that intricate intracellular ion dynamics arise from the coupled interaction between P2X4 and P2X7 receptors, the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX), Ca2+ extrusion by the plasma membrane Ca2+ ATPase (PMCA), and Ca2+ and Na+ leak channels. Both P2XRs are modelled as two separate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) gated Ca2+ and Na+ conductance channels, where the stoichiometry is the removal of one Ca2+ for the hydrolysis of one ATP molecule. Two unique sets of model parameters were determined using an evolutionary algorithm to optimise fitting to experimental data for each of the receptors. This allows the proposed model to capture both human P2X7 and P2X4 data (hP2X7 and hP2X4). The model architecture enables a high degree of simplicity, accuracy and predictability of Ca2+ and Na+ dynamics thus providing quantitative insights into different behaviours of intracellular Na+ and Ca2+ which will guide future experimental research. Understanding the interactions between these receptors and other membrane-bound transporters provides a step forward in resolving the qualitative link between purinergic receptors and microglial physiology and their contribution to brain pathology.

NMDAR-dependent long-term depression is associated with increased short term plasticity through autophagy mediated loss of PSD-95.

Long-term depression (LTD) of synaptic strength can take multiple forms and contribute to circuit remodeling, memory encoding or erasure. The generic term LTD encompasses various induction pathways, including activation of NMDA, mGlu or P2X receptors. However, the associated specific molecular mechanisms and effects on synaptic physiology are still unclear. We here compare how NMDAR- or P2XR-dependent LTD affect synaptic nanoscale organization and function in rodents. While both LTDs are associated with a loss and reorganization of synaptic AMPARs, only NMDAR-dependent LTD induction triggers a profound reorganization of PSD-95. This modification, which requires the autophagy machinery to remove the T19-phosphorylated form of PSD-95 from synapses, leads to an increase in AMPAR surface mobility. We demonstrate that these post-synaptic changes that occur specifically during NMDAR-dependent LTD result in an increased short-term plasticity improving neuronal responsiveness of depressed synapses. Our results establish that P2XR- and NMDAR-mediated LTD are associated to functionally distinct forms of LTD.

Purinergic Modulation of Activity in the Developing Auditory Pathway.

Purinergic P2 receptors, activated by endogenous ATP, are prominently expressed on neuronal and non-neuronal cells during development of the auditory periphery and central auditory neurons. In the mature cochlea, extracellular ATP contributes to ion homeostasis, and has a protective function against noise exposure. Here, we focus on the modulation of activity by extracellular ATP during early postnatal development of the lower auditory pathway. In mammals, spontaneous patterned activity is conveyed along afferent auditory pathways before the onset of acoustically evoked signal processing. During this critical developmental period, inner hair cells fire bursts of action potentials that are believed to provide a developmental code for synaptic maturation and refinement of auditory circuits, thereby establishing a precise tonotopic organization. Endogenous ATP-release triggers such patterned activity by raising the extracellular K+ concentration and contributes to firing by increasing the excitability of auditory nerve fibers, spiral ganglion neurons, and specific neuron types within the auditory brainstem, through the activation of diverse P2 receptors. We review recent studies that provide new models on the contribution of purinergic signaling to early development of the afferent auditory pathway. Further, we discuss potential future directions of purinergic research in the auditory system.

P2X Electrophysiology and Surface Trafficking in Xenopus Oocytes.

Xenopus oocytes serve as a standard heterologous expression system for the study of various ligand-gated ion channels including ATP P2X receptors. Here we describe the whole-cell two-electrode voltage clamp and biotinylation/Western blotting techniques to investigate the functional properties and surface trafficking from P2X-expressing oocytes.

P2X receptors and acupuncture analgesia.

Purinergic signaling has recently been suggested to constitute the cellular mechanism underlying acupuncture-induced analgesia (AA). By extending the original hypothesis on endogenous opioids being released during AA, Geoffrey Burnstock and Maiken Nedergaard supplied evidence for the involvement of purinoceptors (P2 and P1/A1 receptors) in the beneficial effects of AA. In view of certain pain states (e.g. neuropathic pain) which respond only poorly to therapy with standard analgesics, as well as with respect to the numerous unwanted effects of opioids and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, it is of great significance to search for alternative therapeutic options. Because clinical studies on AA yielded sometimes heterogeneous results, it is of eminent importance to relay on experiments carried out on laboratory animals, by evaluating the data with stringent statistical methods including comparison with a sufficient number of control groups. In this review, we summarize the state of the art situation with respect to the participation of P2 receptors in AA and try to forecast how the field is likely to move forward in the future.

P2 receptor interaction and signalling cascades in neuroprotection.

Nucleotides can contribute to the survival of different glial and neuronal models at the nervous system via activation of purinergic P2X and P2Y receptors. Their activation counteracts different proapoptotic events, such as excitotoxicity, mitochondrial impairment, oxidative stress and DNA damage, which concur to elicit cell loss in different processes of neurodegeneration and brain injury. Thus, it is frequent to find that different neuroprotective mediators converge in the activation of the same intracellular survival pathways to protect cells from death. The present review focuses on the role of P2Y1 and P2Y13 metabotropic receptors, and P2X7 ionotropic receptors to regulate the balance between survival and apoptosis. In particular, we analyze the intracellular pathways involved in the signaling of these nucleotide receptors to elicit survival, including calcium/PLC, PI3K/Akt/GSK3, MAPK cascades, and the expression of antioxidant and antiapoptotic genes. This review emphasizes the novel contribution of nucleotide receptors to maintain cell homeostasis through the regulation of MAP kinases and phosphatases. Unraveling the different roles found for nucleotide receptors in different models and cellular contexts may be crucial to delineate future therapeutic applications based on targeting nucleotide receptors for neuroprotection.

Characterization of the antagonist actions of 5-BDBD at the rat P2X4 receptor.

P2X receptors (P2XRs) are a family of ATP-gated ionic channels that are expressed in numerous excitable and non-excitable cells. Despite the great advance on the structure and function of these receptors in the last decades, there is still lack of specific and potent antagonists for P2XRs subtypes, especially for the P2X4R. Here, we studied in detail the effect of the P2X4R antagonist 5-(3-bromophenyl)-1,3-dihydro-2H-benzofuro[3,2-e]-1,4-diazepin-2-one (5-BDBD) on ATP-induced currents mediated by the rat P2X4R and compared its specificity among another rat P2XRs. We found that 5-BDBD is a potent P2X4R antagonist, with an IC50 of 0.75 µM when applied for 2 min prior and during ATP stimulation. Moreover, at 10 µM concentration, 5-BDBD did not affect the ATP-induced P2X2aR, P2X2bR, and P2X7R current amplitude or the pattern of receptor desensitization. However, at 10 µM concentration but not 0.75 µM 5-BDBD inhibited the P2X1R and P2X3R-gated currents by 13 and 35% respectively. Moreover, we studied the effects of 5-BDBD in long-term potentiation experiments performed in rat hippocampal slices, finding this antagonist can partially decrease LTP, a response that is believed to be mediated in part by endogenous P2X4Rs. These results indicate that 5-BDBD could be used to study the endogenous effects of the P2X4R in the central nervous system and this antagonist can discriminate between P2X4R and other P2XRs, when they are co-expressed in the same tissue.

Cholecystokinin Switches the Plasticity of GABA Synapses in the Dorsomedial Hypothalamus via Astrocytic ATP Release.

Whether synapses in appetite-regulatory brain regions undergo long-term changes in strength in response to satiety peptides is poorly understood. Here we show that following bursts of afferent activity, the neuromodulator and satiety peptide cholecystokinin (CCK) shifts the plasticity of GABA synapses in the dorsomedial nucleus of the hypothalamus of male Sprague Dawley rats from long-term depression to long-term potentiation (LTP). This LTP requires the activation of both type 2 CCK receptors and group 5 metabotropic glutamate receptors, resulting in a rise in astrocytic intracellular calcium and subsequent ATP release. ATP then acts on presynaptic P2X receptors to trigger a prolonged increase in GABA release. Our observations demonstrate a novel form of CCK-mediated plasticity that requires astrocytic ATP release, and could serve as a mechanism for appetite regulation.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Satiety peptides, like cholecystokinin, play an important role in the central regulation of appetite, but their effect on synaptic plasticity is not well understood. The current data provide novel evidence that cholecystokinin shifts the plasticity from long-term depression to long-term potentiation at GABA synapses in the rat dorsomedial nucleus of the hypothalamus. We also demonstrate that this plasticity requires the concerted action of cholecystokinin and glutamate on astrocytes, triggering the release of the gliotransmitter ATP, which subsequently increases GABA release from neighboring inhibitory terminals. This research reveals a novel neuropeptide-induced switch in the direction of synaptic plasticity that requires astrocytes, and could represent a new mechanism by which cholecystokinin regulates appetite.

Calcium signalling and related ion channels in neutrophil recruitment and function.

The recruitment of neutrophils to sites of inflammation, their battle against invading microorganisms through phagocytosis and the release of antimicrobial agents is a highly coordinated and tightly regulated process that involves the interplay of many different receptors, ion channels and signalling pathways. Changes in intracellular calcium levels, caused by cytosolic Ca2+ store depletion and the influx of extracellular Ca2+ via ion channels, play a critical role in synchronizing neutrophil activation and function. In this review, we provide an overview of how Ca2+ signalling is initiated in neutrophils and how changes in intracellular Ca2+ levels modulate neutrophil function.

Genistein Suppressing the ROS-Induced Hypersensitivity of Rat Vagal Lung C-Fiber Afferents through an ERα-Mediated Mechanism.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) may induce hypersensitivity of vagal lung C-fibers (VLCFs) through the interaction of transient receptor potential ankyirn 1 (TRPA1) and P2X receptors. Genistein is a soy-derived isoflavone that exerts antioxidant effects by binding to estrogen receptors (ERs), ERα and ERß. We investigated whether ER activation by genistein can suppress H2O2-mediated VLCF hypersensitivity and identified the types of ERs involved. Results revealed that subcutaneous injection of genistein or 4,4',4"-(4-propyl-[1H]-pyrazole-1,3,5-triyl)trisphenol (PPT, a selective ERα agonist) can attenuate H2O2-induced VLCF hypersensitivity. The suppressive effects of genistein and PPT were inhibited by an additional treatment with ICI182780 (a nonselective ER antagonist) or 1,3-bis(4- hydroxyphenyl)-4-methyl-5-[4-(2-piperidinylethoxy)phenol]-1H-pyrazole dihydrochloride (MPP, a selective ERα antagonist). Treatment with a combination of PPT, HC030031 (a TRPA1 receptor antagonist), and iso-pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2',5'-disulphonate (iso-PPADS, a P2X receptor antagonist) did not further inhibit H2O2-induced VLCF hypersensitivity as compared with combined HC030031 and iso-PPADS treatment. In conclusion, ERα activation by genistein can suppress H2O2- induced VLCF hypersensitivity through its functional interaction with TRPA1 and P2X receptors.

Acute intermittent hypoxia with concurrent hypercapnia evokes P2X and TRPV1 receptor-dependent sensory long-term facilitation in naïve carotid bodies.

KEY POINTS: Activity-dependent plasticity can be induced in carotid body (CB) chemosensory afferents without chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) preconditioning by acute intermittent hypoxia coincident with bouts of hypercapnia (AIH-Hc). Several properties of this acute plasticity are shared with CIH-dependent sensory long-term facilitation (LTF) in that induction is dependent on 5-HT, angiotensin II, protein kinase C and reactive oxygen species. Several properties differ from CIH-dependent sensory LTF; H2 O2 appears to play no part in induction, whereas maintenance requires purinergic P2X2/3 receptor activation and is dependent on transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1) receptor sensitization. Because P2X2/3 and TRPV1 receptors are located in carotid sinus nerve (CSN) terminals but not presynaptic glomus cells, a primary site of the acute AIH-Hc induced sensory LTF appears to be postsynaptic. Our results obtained in vivo suggest a role for TRPV1-dependent CB activity in acute sympathetic LTF. We propose that P2X-TRPV1-receptor-dependent sensory LTF may constitute an important early mechanism linking sleep apnoea with hypertension and/or cardiovascular disease. ABSTRACT: Apnoeas constitute an acute existential threat to neonates and adults. In large part, this threat is detected by the carotid bodies, which are the primary peripheral chemoreceptors, and is combatted by arousal and acute cardiorespiratory responses, including increased sympathetic output. Similar responses occur with repeated apnoeas but they continue beyond the last apnoea and can persist for hours [i.e. ventilatory and sympathetic long-term facilitation (LTF)]. These long-term effects may be adaptive during acute episodic apnoea, although they may prolong hypertension causing chronic cardiovascular impairment. We report a novel mechanism of acute carotid body (CB) plasticity (sensory LTF) induced by repeated apnoea-like stimuli [i.e. acute intermittent hypoxia coincident with bouts of hypercapnia (AIH-Hc)]. This plasticity did not require chronic intermittent hypoxia preconditioning, was dependent on P2X receptors and protein kinase C, and involved heat-sensitive transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1) receptors. Reactive oxygen species (O2 ·¯) were involved in initiating plasticity only; no evidence was found for H2 O2 involvement. Angiotensin II and 5-HT receptor antagonists, losartan and ketanserin, severely reduced CB responses to individual hypoxic-hypercapnic challenges and prevented the induction of sensory LTF but, if applied after AIH-Hc, failed to reduce plasticity-associated activity. Conversely, TRPV1 receptor antagonism had no effect on responses to individual hypoxic-hypercapnic challenges but reduced plasticity-associated activity by ∼50%. Further, TRPV1 receptor antagonism in vivo reduced sympathetic LTF caused by AIH-Hc, although only if the CBs were functional. These data demonstrate a new mechanism of CB plasticity and suggest P2X-TRPV1-dependent sensory LTF as a novel target for pharmacological intervention in some forms of neurogenic hypertension associated with recurrent apnoeas.

P2X-Receptor Antagonists Inhibit the Interaction of S. aureus Hemolysin A with Membranes.

The pore forming hemolysin A, Hla, is a major virulence factor of Staphylococcus aureus. Apparently, 1-2 pore(s) per cell suffice(s) to cause cell death. Accumulated experimental evidence points towards a major role of ATP-gated purinergic receptors (P2XR) for hemolysis caused by Hla, complement and other pore forming proteins, presumably by increasing membrane permeability. Indeed, in experiments employing rabbit erythrocytes, inhibitory concentrations of frequently employed P2XR-antagonists were in a similar range as previously reported for erythrocytes of other species and other toxins. However, Hla-dependent hemolysis was not enhanced by extracellular ATP, and oxidized adenosinetriphosphate (oxATP) had only a minor inhibitory effect. Unexpectedly, P2XR-inhibitors also prevented Hla-induced lysis of pure lipid membranes, demonstrating that the inhibition did not even depend on the presence of P2XR. Fluorescence microscopy and gel-electrophoresis clearly revealed that P2XR-inhibitors interfere with binding and subsequent oligomerisation of Hla with membranes. Similar results were obtained employing HaCaT-cells. Furthermore, calorimetric data and hemolysis experiments with Hla pre-treated with pyridoxal phosphate-6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulfonic acid (PPADS) showed that this compound directly binds to Hla. Our results call for a critical re-assessment of the appealing concept, which suggests that P2XR are general amplifiers of damage by pore-forming proteins.

Alpha-lipoic Acid suppresses P2X receptor activities and visceral hypersensitivity to colorectal distention in diabetic rats.

The present study was designed to investigate the roles of P2X3 receptors in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons in colonic hypersensitivity and the effects of alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) on P2X3 receptor activity and colonic hypersensitivity of diabetic rats. Streptozotocin (STZ) was used to induce diabetic model. Abdominal withdrawal reflex (AWR) responding to colorectal distention (CRD) was recorded as colonic sensitivity. ATP-induced current density of colon-specific DRG (T13-L2 DRGs) neurons was measured with whole-cell patch clamp. The expression of P2X3Rs of T13-L2 DRGs was measured by western blot analysis. The results showed that AWR scores significantly increased after STZ injection. P2X3R expression and ATP current density of T13-L2 DRG neurons were enhanced in diabetic rats. Intraperitoneal injection with ALA once a day for 1 week remarkably reduced P2X3R expression and ATP current density in diabetic rats. Importantly, ALA treatment attenuated colonic hypersensitivity in diabetic rats. Our data suggest that STZ injection increases expression and function of P2X3 receptors of colon-specific DRG neurons, thus contributing to colonic hypersensitivity in diabetic rats. Administration of ALA attenuates diabetic colonic hypersensitivity, which is most likely mediated by suppressing expression and function of P2X3 receptors in DRGs of diabetic rats.

Participation of Purinergic P2X Receptors in the Thermoregulatory Response to Cooling.

We studied the role of purinergic P2X receptors in the body response to cooling. In experiments on rats, P2X receptor antagonist PPADS was administered in different modes, which resulted in changes of different characteristics of the thermoregulatory response to cold. Iontophoresis of P2X antagonist into the skin decreased the thermal thresholds of all thermoregulatory responses to cooling, which can attest to a modulating effect of P2X receptors on peripheral thermosensitive afferents. Intraperitoneal administration of P2X antagonist suppressed thermoregulatory activity of skeletal muscles (shivering) developing during cooling without changing the thresholds of thermoregulatory responses. The findings suggest that ATP and P2X receptors play an important role in the formation of the response to cooling.

Physiological contribution of P2X receptors in postreceptoral signal processing in the mouse retina.

ATP activates P2X receptors and acts as a neurotransmitter in the nervous system. We have previously reported that P2X receptors modulate the firing rate of retinal ganglion cells. Since many subtypes of P2X receptors are distributed in the mouse retina, it is likely that the modulatory effects of P2X receptor-mediated signaling can occur at multiple synaptic levels in the retina. In this study, we investigated whether P2X receptors expressed between the photoreceptor layer and the inner nuclear layer in the mouse retina were physiologically functional, by electroretinography (ERG). In the combined rod-cone ERG and the scotopic ERG, intravitreal injection of PPADS, an antagonist of P2X receptors, had no effects on the amplitude of the a-wave, but decreased the amplitude of the b-wave. In the photopic ERG, intravitreal injection of PPADS significantly decreased the amplitude of both the a-wave and the b-wave. In ex vivo recordings, a decrease in the b-wave amplitude was observed at 20µM PPADS, confirming that the inhibition of the b-wave by intravitreal injection of PPADS is due to the inhibition of P2X receptors. Our findings suggest that P2X receptor-mediated signaling has a physiological effect in both the rod and the cone pathways in postreceptoral processing.

How Azobenzene Photoswitches Restore Visual Responses to the Blind Retina.

Azobenzene photoswitches confer light sensitivity onto retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in blind mice, making these compounds promising candidates as vision-restoring drugs in humans with degenerative blindness. Remarkably, photosensitization manifests only in animals with photoreceptor degeneration and is absent from those with intact rods and cones. Here we show that P2X receptors mediate the entry of photoswitches into RGCs, where they associate with voltage-gated ion channels, enabling light to control action-potential firing. All charged photoswitch compounds require permeation through P2X receptors, whose gene expression is upregulated in the blind retina. Photoswitches and membrane-impermeant fluorescent dyes likewise penetrate through P2X receptors to label a subset of RGCs in the degenerated retina. Electrophysiological recordings and mapping of fluorescently labeled RGC dendritic projections together indicate that photosensitization is highly selective for OFF-RGCs. Hence, P2X receptors are a natural conduit allowing cell-type-selective and degeneration-specific delivery of photoswitches to restore visual function in blinding disease.

Inhibition of P2X Receptors Protects Human Monocytes against Damage by Leukotoxin from Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans and α-Hemolysin from Escherichia coli.

α-Hemolysin (HlyA) from Escherichia coli and leukotoxin A (LtxA) from Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans are important virulence factors in ascending urinary tract infections and aggressive periodontitis, respectively. The extracellular signaling molecule ATP is released immediately after insertion of the toxins into plasma membranes and, via P2X receptors, is essential for the erythrocyte damage inflicted by these toxins. Moreover, ATP signaling is required for the ensuing recognition and phagocytosis of damaged erythrocytes by the monocytic cell line THP-1. Here, we investigate how these toxins affect THP-1 monocyte function. We demonstrate that both toxins trigger early ATP release and a following increase in the intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) in THP-1 monocytes. The HlyA- and LtxA-induced [Ca2+]i response is diminished by the P2 receptor antagonist in a pattern that fits the functional P2 receptor expression in these cells. Both toxins are capable of lysing THP-1 cells, with LtxA being more aggressive. Either desensitization or blockage of P2X1, P2X4, or P2X7 receptors markedly reduces toxin-induced cytolysis. This pattern is paralleled in freshly isolated human monocytes from healthy volunteers. Interestingly, only a minor fraction of the toxin-damaged THP-1 monocytes eventually lyse. P2X7 receptor inhibition generally prevents cell damage, except from a distinct cell shrinkage that prevails in response to the toxins. Moreover, we find that preexposure to HlyA preserves the capacity of THP-1 monocytes to phagocytose damaged erythrocytes and may induce readiness to discriminate between damaged and healthy erythrocytes. These findings suggest a new pharmacological target for protecting monocytes during exposure to pore-forming cytolysins during infection or injury.

Interaction of αß-Methylene ATP with the Cholinergic Twitch Response in the Guinea-Pig Ileum.

In this study, direct effects of the P2X purinoceptor agonist αß-methylene ATP (αß-meATP) and effects on the cholinergic twitch response of the electrically stimulated longitudinal muscle-myenteric plexus (LMMP) strip of the guinea-pig ileum, were investigated. αß-meATP (1, 3, and 10 µmol/l) induced short-lasting contractions on its own, followed by an inhibition of the twitch response during its presence in the organ bath. The inhibitor of small conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (SK) channels, apamin (100 nmol/l), prevented the inhibitory effect of αß-meATP on the twitch response, whereas tetraethylammonium (300 µmol/l), a blocker of voltage-gated K+ channels and an inhibitor at nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, augmented the inhibitory effect of αß-meATP on the twitch response. It is concluded, that there is a functional interaction between P2X receptors and nicotinic receptors in the LMMP strip, and that a major part of the excitatory input to the cholinergic motor neuron evoking the twitch response is purinergic and not nicotinergic.

Insights into the channel gating of P2X receptors from structures, dynamics and small molecules.

P2X receptors, as ATP-gated non-selective trimeric ion channels, are permeable to Na(+), K(+) and Ca(2+). Comparing with other ligand-gated ion channel families, P2X receptors are distinct in their unique gating properties and pathophysiological roles, and have attracted attention as promising drug targets for a variety of diseases, such as neuropathic pain, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis and thrombus. Several small molecule inhibitors for distinct P2X subtypes have entered into clinical trials. However, many questions regarding the gating mechanism of P2X remain unsolved. The structural determinations of P2X receptors at the resting and ATP-bound open states revealed that P2X receptor gating is a cooperative allosteric process involving multiple domains, which marks the beginning of the post-structure era of P2X research at atomic level. Here, we review the current knowledge on the structure-function relationship of P2X receptors, depict the whole picture of allosteric changes during the channel gating, and summarize the active sites that may contribute to new strategies for developing novel allosteric drugs targeting P2X receptors.

Presynaptic P2X1-3 and α3-containing nicotinic receptors assemble into functionally interacting ion channels in the rat hippocampus.

Previous studies documented a cross-talk between purinergic P2X (P2XR) and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) in heterologous expression systems and peripheral preparations. We now investigated if this occurred in native brain preparations and probed its physiological function. We found that P2XR and nAChR were enriched in hippocampal terminals, where both P2X1-3R and α3, but not α4, nAChR subunits were located in the active zone and in dopamine-ß-hydroxylase-positive hippocampal terminals. Notably, P2XR ligands displaced nAChR binding and nAChR ligands displaced P2XR binding to hippocampal synaptosomes. In addition, a negative P2XR/nAChR cross-talk was observed in the control of the evoked release of noradrenaline from rat hippocampal synaptosomes, characterized by a less-than-additive facilitatory effect upon co-activation of both receptors. This activity-dependent cross-inhibition was confirmed in Xenopus oocytes transfected with P2X1-3Rs and α3ß2 (but not α4ß2) nAChR. Besides, P2X2 co-immunoprecipitated α3ß2 (but not α4ß2) nAChR, both in HEK cells and rat hippocampal membranes indicating that this functional interaction is supported by a physical association between P2XR and nAChR. Moreover, eliminating extracellular ATP with apyrase in hippocampal slices promoted the inhibitory effect of the nAChR antagonist tubocurarine on noradrenaline release induced by high- but not low-frequency stimulation. Overall, these results provide integrated biochemical, pharmacological and functional evidence showing that P2X1-3R and α3ß2 nAChR are physically and functionally interconnected at the presynaptic level to control excessive noradrenergic terminal activation upon intense synaptic firing in the hippocampus.