Biomolecular analyses enable new insights into ancient Egyptian embalming.

The ability of the ancient Egyptians to preserve the human body through embalming has not only fascinated people since antiquity, but also has always raised the question of how this outstanding chemical and ritual process was practically achieved. Here we integrate archaeological, philological and organic residue analyses, shedding new light on the practice and economy of embalming in ancient Egypt. We analysed the organic contents of 31 ceramic vessels recovered from a 26th Dynasty embalming workshop at Saqqara1,2. These vessels were labelled according to their content and/or use, enabling us to correlate organic substances with their Egyptian names and specific embalming practices. We identified specific mixtures of fragrant or antiseptic oils, tars and resins that were used to embalm the head and treat the wrappings using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses. Our study of the Saqqara workshop extends interpretations from a micro-level analysis highlighting the socio-economic status of a tomb owner3-7 to macro-level interpretations of the society. The identification of non-local organic substances enables the reconstruction of trade networks that provided ancient Egyptian embalmers with the substances required for mummification. This extensive demand for foreign products promoted trade both within the Mediterranean8-10 (for example, Pistacia and conifer by-products) and with tropical forest regions (for example, dammar and elemi). Additionally, we show that at Saqqara, antiu and sefet-well known from ancient texts and usually translated as 'myrrh' or 'incense'11-13 and 'a sacred oil'13,14-refer to a coniferous oils-or-tars-based mixture and an unguent with plant additives, respectively.

Contemporary analytical techniques reveal the secret composition of a 19th century Jerusalem Balsam.

In 1719, Antonio Menzani di Cuna from the Saint Savior monastery published an alcoholic extract formula made from plant and herb resins under the name Jerusalem Balsam. The Balsam gained high popularity due to its remedial benefits. At the end of the 19 th century, Jerusalem Balsam produced by the hermit Johannes Treutler was found to be particularly popular. We analysed a sample of a valuable find coming from the last decade of the 19 th century, making it probably the oldest surviving Jerusalem Balsam in the world. The purpose of this work was to investigate the composition of the historical sample and to try to determine the origin of its components. This was achieved by comparing the profile of volatile compounds extracted from the balsam using HS-SPME technique with the profile characteristic for plant resins as classic ingredients of the Johannes Treutler formula. The use of two chromatographic columns of different polarity, as well as the transformation of the polar components of the sample into TMS derivatives, allowed to obtain new information on the historical composition of the Balsam. Also, it can be stated with high probability that plant resins were indeed used in the production of the Balsam as referred to in the original recipe of Johannes Treutler. We also discuss challenges in determining the original composition of the Balsam.

Ancient DNA from mastics solidifies connection between material culture and genetics of mesolithic hunter-gatherers in Scandinavia.

Human demography research in grounded on the information derived from ancient DNA and archaeology. For example, the study on the early postglacial dual-route colonisation of the Scandinavian Peninsula is largely based on associating genomic data with the early dispersal of lithic technology from the East European Plain. However, a clear connection between material culture and genetics has been lacking. Here, we demonstrate that direct connection by analysing human DNA from chewed birch bark pitch mastics. These samples were discovered at Huseby Klev in western Sweden, a Mesolithic site with eastern lithic technology. We generated genome-wide data for three individuals, and show their affinity to the Scandinavian hunter-gatherers. Our samples date to 9880-9540 calBP, expanding the temporal range and distribution of the early Scandinavian genetic group. We propose that DNA from ancient mastics can be used to study environment and ecology of prehistoric populations.

The Curative Role of Bitumen in Traditional Persian Medicine

AIM: Bitumen is a natural substance effusing from rocks' notches in some highland areas; it has been known as an effective remedy for treating some illnesses. Considering pain relieving properties of bitumen in traditional Persian medicine (TPM) sources, this study aims to review the viewpoints of TPM sages regarding bitumen in the context of traditional Persian medicine. It also provides applicable information for interested researchers to conduct well-designed clinical trials and evaluate therapeutic effects of bitumen claimed in TPM sources. MATERIAL AND METHOD: Various databases including Embase, SID, IRANDOC, IranMedex, Scopus and PubMed were searched with keywords "bitumen" and "Shilajit". Furthermore, main traditional Persian medicine sources including Avicenna's "Canon of medicine", "Continens Liber" by Razes, "The storehouse of medicaments" by Aghili, "Gift for the faithful" by Momen Tonekaboni and "Measure for medicine" written by Muhammad Akbar Shah Arzani were reviewed with Persian keywords "Moomiaii" and "Mumnaei" Results: According to TPM sources, bitumen was used by Iranian's physicians to treat a wide range of diseases. It was known especially as an effective remedy to improve gastrointestinal digestive problems. CONCLUSION: Bitumen is cited in traditional Persian medicine sources as an effective remedy for treatment of a wide range of diseases, especially GI disorders and bone pain. Recent studies showed the beneficial effects of bitumen in treatment of wound healing, however using it in medical practice for other health dilemma should be confirmed by conducting well-designed clinical studies in the future.

The Chemical History of Morphine: An 8000-year Journey, from Resin to de-novo Synthesis.

Evidence of human use of opium dates back as far as the sixth millennium BCE. Ancient societies through the Renaissance period created a variety of opium products, proliferating its common use and subsequent addiction. Because the active moiety was not known at this time, the potency of these opium concoctions could neither be predicted nor controlled. The first step in identifying opium's active ingredient, morphine, was its chemical isolation in the early 1800s by Wilhelm Sertürner. The subsequent elucidation of morphine's chemical formula and Sir Robert Robinson's derivation of morphine's structural formula, which won him the 1947 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, round out 150 years of the incremental advances in our chemical understanding of morphine. Nevertheless, our attempts to synthesize morphine, despite our advanced knowledge in synthetic chemistry, are still no match for the plant-based extraction of morphine from the poppy plant. The status quo remains problematic socially, economically, and politically; the relationships between the countries laboriously growing poppy plants to extract morphine and those countries importing these painkillers are unstable at best. In this study, we contrast the cumulative scientific discoveries that have led to our current chemical knowledge of morphine with the centuries-old natural method of morphine production that still dominates the opioid market today.

Topical pine tar: History, properties and use as a treatment for common skin conditions.

Pine tar is the end product of pine wood carbonisation following distillation using extreme heat. An extensive literature search was conducted back to the 1950s for this review. Pine tar has been used in medicine for more than 2000 years to treat a range of skin conditions because of its soothing and antiseptic properties. Pine tar should not be confused with coal tar, which has been produced from coal for approximately a hundred years. Pine tar is thought to exert its effect by reducing DNA synthesis and mitotic activity, which promotes a return to normal keratinisation. In addition, pine tar has been shown to be antipruritic, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antifungal. These properties make pine tar suitable for the topical treatment of eczema, psoriasis, seborrhoeic dermatitis and other dry, itchy, flaky or inflamed skin conditions. Topical products available over-the-counter in Australia today contain up to 2.3% pine tar, and come in several different formulations that can be used on the entire body, including the face. Modern day pine tar is manufactured with increased purity to eliminate toxic phenol and carcinogenic components, which have been of concern in the past. Primary irritation is uncommon. In conclusion, the long experience with topical pine tar therapy and its worldwide usage, together with the evidence presented in this review, suggests that pine tar is an effective treatment with minimal safety risk.

Enlightening the past: analytical proof for the use of Pistacia exudates in ancient Egyptian embalming resins.

Mastic, the resinous exudate of the evergreen shrub Pistacia lentiscus, is frequently discussed as one of the ingredients used for embalming in ancient Egypt. We show the identification of mastic in ancient Egyptian embalming resins by an unambiguous assignment of the mastic triterpenoid fingerprint consisting of moronic acid, oleanonic acid, isomasticadienonic and masticadienonic acid through the consolidation of NMR and GC/MS analysis. Differences in the observed triterpenoid fingerprints between mummy specimens suggest that more than one plant species served as the triterpenoid resin source. Analysis of the triterpenoid acids of ancient embalming resin samples in the form of their methyl- and trimethylsilyl esters is compared. In addition we show a simple way to differentiate between residues of mastic from its use as incense during embalming or from direct mastic application in the embalming resin.

Experimental history: swinging pendulums and melting shellac.

Four hundred years ago Galileo Galilei aimed a telescope at the sky. He revolutionized astronomy. Equally revolutionary were his experiments in physics. Unlike his astronomical observations the experiments remain difficult to understand and replicate even today. Two centuries after Galileo, Augustin Coulomb demonstrated experimentally the law of electrostatic force. It has never been successfully replicated. Yet both Galileo and Coulomb were exquisite experimentalists. The fact is that revolutionary experiments in physics are never finished. They are open for investigation for generations to come.

Study of the organic residue from a 2600-year old Etruscan plumpekanne.

Excavation of the Etruscan Necropolis dell'Osteria near Vulci (VI Century b.c.) brought to light in Tomb 2 a bronze plumpekanne. According to preliminary X-ray observation, an unusually thick deposit of organic nature lay at its bottom. Numerous samples of the residue were investigated using microFTIR and diffuse reflectance FTIR spectroscopy. For comparative purposes similar analyses were performed on samples of resins mentioned in classical sources. Spectroscopic results identify the residue as mastic or incense, both triterpenic resins. The former seems to be preferred since, according to classical sources, it was used as must additive.

Combined FT-Raman spectroscopic and mass spectrometric study of ancient Egyptian sarcophagal fragments.

The application of combined Raman spectroscopic and GC-MS analytical techniques for the characterisation of organic varnish residues from Egyptian Dynastic funerary sarcophagal and cartonnage fragments from the Graeco-Roman period, ca. 2200 BP, is described. The nondestructive use of Raman spectroscopy was initially employed to derive information about the specific location of organic material on the specimens, which were then targeted in specific areas using minimal sampling for GC-MS analysis. In the case of the sarcophagal fragment, a degraded yellow-brown surface treatment was identified as a Pistacia spp. resin; this provides additional evidence for the use of this resin, which has previously been identified in Canaanite transport amphorae, varnishes and "incense" bowls in an Egyptian Late Bronze Age archaeological context. The cartonnage fragment also contained an organic coating for which the Raman spectrum indicated a degradation that was too severe to facilitate identification, but the GC-MS data revealed that it was composed of a complex mixture of fatty acid residues. The combined use of GC-MS and Raman spectroscopy for the characterisation of organic materials in an archaeological context is advocated for minimisation of sampling and restriction to specifically identified targets for museum archival specimens.

The historical roots of popular practices in oral health: Pistacia lentiscus in Cartagena, Murcia (Spain).

All over the world, different cultures have made use of the plants that nature has provided for their oral care and hygiene. Many of these popular uses were integrated into scientific medicine during ancient times, but have once again returned to occupy a place in popular medical practice. This article will trace the historical route of the popular uses of Pistacia lentiscus (the mastic tree, or evergreen pistache) in the province of Murcia in the south of Spain.

Characterisation of embalming materials of a mummy of the Ptolemaic era. Comparison with balms from mummies of different eras.

Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry has been used to determine the nature of organic materials used in mummification balms. A comparative analysis of samples taken from Egyptian mummies is developed. The results are given in two parts. First, it is shown that the chemical composition of the balm is practically independent of the part of the mummy from which it is taken. This study was done on a Ptolemaic mummy (circa 100 BC from the Guimet Museum in Lyon). Fats, beeswax, and diterpenic resins were the main components: they were found everywhere. Castor oil was also very often detected (in half of the samples). This particular fat is present in the balm inside the thorax but not in the skull. Moreover it is shown that a vegetable tannin was employed. Components indicative of vegetable tannin input (gallic acid and inositols) were found in seven samples out of eighteen, particularly close to the body and on the canopic pack of the heart. Secondly, some conclusions from a comparative study of the composition of balms from mummies of various social levels as well as of different Egyptian periods are reported. It is shown that beeswax was used as from very early times (XVIIIth dynasty). The mixture of beeswax, fats, and diterpenoid resins would appear to be more recent. The balms of three mummies dating from more recent Egyptian periods (XIXth to XXVth dynasty) were analysed. No evidence of a resin, gum-resin, or plant gum could be found. Some mummies would appear to have been embalmed with fats or beeswax. Finally, the entrails canopic pack said to belong to Ramses II undoubtedly shows an embalming process with a triterpenic resin of the mastic type. The adopted analytical methodology enabled us to achieve simultaneous detection of four components of the balm of the Ptolemaic mummy. Analysis of the other five mummies revealed far less complex chemical compositions for the balms. This may be an indication of different embalming processes, although we should bear in mind the question of organic matter preservation through the ages.

Raman spectroscopic analysis of a tembetá: a resin archaeological artefact in need of conservation.

The Raman spectroscopic analysis of a Brazilian tembetá, a lip-plug which signifies the attainment of manhood in tribal cultures, and dated to about 1600 years BP is reported. Tembetá are usually made of wood or stone but this lip-plug is very rare in that it is made of resin, which has been severely degraded in the burial environment; the brownish-red fragmented remains are in an extremely fragile condition and information about the chemical composition was required before urgent conservation was undertaken. Raman spectra excited at 1064 nm showed the presence of triterpenoid materials in the main body of the artefact, and indicated that the red-brown coating was not iron(III) oxide as suspected but rather degraded resin. Comparison with contemporary resins has facilitated the partial identification of the material in this important artefact as a triterpenoid-rich material, which is closely similar to the Pistacia species. A possible archaeological link to the Jatobá do Cerrado (Hymenaea stigonocarpa Mart.) resin has been excluded as the Raman spectra of this resin specimen and the tembetá do not match; indeed, the Jatobá do Cerrado resin specimen belongs to a diterpenoid-rich classification as befits its Hymenaea species.

Frankincense and myrrh as remedies in children.

Two cases of therapy with frankincense and myrrh in children are presented. The long history of this unusual treatment is outlined, demonstrating that for several millenia such agents have been employed in a number of medical contexts, as well as in the perfume and incense industries. Myrrh has found recent pharmacological application in the reduction of cholesterol and triglycerides, as predicted by several traditional therapies.

Frankincense and myrrh as remedies in children

Two cases of therapy with frankincense and myrrh in children are presented. The long history of this unusual treatment is outlined, demonstrating that for several millenia such agents have been employed in a number of medical contexts, as well as in the perfume and incence industries. Myrrh has found recent pharmacological application in the reduction of cholesterol and triglycerides, as predicted by several traditional therapies. (AU)