Sex differences in cholinergic signaling affect functional outcomes for theta-gamma coordination in hippocampal subcircuits following experimental febrile status epilepticus.

OBJECTIVE: Sex determines cognitive outcome in animal models of early life seizure, where males exhibit impaired hippocampal-dependent learning and memory compared with females. The physiological underpinnings of this sex effect are unclear. Cholinergic signaling is essential for the generation of hippocampal oscillations, and supplementation of cholinergic precursors prior to status epilepticus in immature male rats prevents subsequent memory deficits. We hypothesized that there are sex differences in acetylcholine circuits and their response to experimental febrile status epilepticus (eFSE). METHODS: eFSE was induced in male and female rat pups. We transversed the hippocampus of postnatal day >60 control (CTL) and eFSE rats with a 64-channel laminar silicon probe to assay cholinergic-dependent theta oscillations under urethane anesthesia. Local field potential properties were compared during (1) baseline sensory stimulation, (2) pharmacological stimulation via acetylcholine reuptake blockade, and (3) sensory stimulation after muscarinic acetylcholine receptor block (atropine). RESULTS: In all groups, a baseline tail pinch could elicit theta oscillations via corticohippocampal synaptic input. Following atropine, a tail pinch response could no longer be elicited in CTL male, CTL female, or eFSE female rats. In contrast, induced slow theta power in eFSE males after atropine was not decreased to spontaneous levels. Analysis of oscillation bandwidths revealed sex differences in acetylcholine modulation of theta frequency and slow gamma frequency and power. This study also identified significant effects of both sex and eFSE on baseline theta-gamma comodulation, indicating a loss of coupling in eFSE males and a potential gain of function in eFSE females. SIGNIFICANCE: There are differences in cholinergic modulation of theta and gamma signal coordination between male and female rats. These differences may underlie worse cognitive outcomes in males following eFSE. Promoting the efficacy of muscarinic acetylcholine signaling prior to or following early life seizures could elucidate a mechanism for the temporal discoordination of neural signals within and between hippocampus and neocortex and provide a novel therapeutic approach for improving cognitive outcomes.

Effects of Catecholaminergic and Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Response Inhibition.

BACKGROUND: The principle of gain control determines the efficiency of neuronal processing and can be enhanced with pharmacological or brain stimulation methods. It is a key factor for cognitive control, but the degree of how much gain control may be enhanced underlies a physical limit. METHODS: To investigate whether methylphenidate (MPH) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) share common underlying mechanisms and cognitive effects, we administered MPH and anodal tDCS (atDCS) over the right inferior frontal gyrus both separately and combined, while healthy adult participants (n = 104) performed a response selection and inhibition task. The recorded EEG data were analyzed with a focus on theta band activity, and source estimation analyses were conducted. RESULTS: The behavioral data show that MPH and atDCS revealed interactive effects on the ability to inhibit responses. Both MPH and atDCS modulated task-related theta oscillations in the supplementary motor area when applied separately, making a common underlying mechanism likely. When both stimulation methods were combined, there was no doubling of effects in the supplementary motor area but a shift to inferior frontal areas in the cortical network responsible for theta-driven processing. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that both MPH and atDCS likely share a common underlying neuronal mechanism, and interestingly, they demonstrate interactive effects when combined, which are most likely due to the physical limitations of gain control increases. The current study provides critical groundwork for future combined applications of MPH and non-invasive brain stimulation.

5-MeO-DMT induces sleep-like LFP spectral signatures in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of awake rats.

5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) is a potent classical psychedelic known to induce changes in locomotion, behaviour, and sleep in rodents. However, there is limited knowledge regarding its acute neurophysiological effects. Local field potentials (LFPs) are commonly used as a proxy for neural activity, but previous studies investigating psychedelics have been hindered by confounding effects of behavioural changes and anaesthesia, which alter these signals. To address this gap, we investigated acute LFP changes in the hippocampus (HP) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of freely behaving rats, following 5-MeO-DMT administration. 5-MeO-DMT led to an increase of delta power and a decrease of theta power in the HP LFPs, which could not be accounted for by changes in locomotion. Furthermore, we observed a dose-dependent reduction in slow (20-50 Hz) and mid (50-100 Hz) gamma power, as well as in theta phase modulation, even after controlling for the effects of speed and theta power. State map analysis of the spectral profile of waking behaviour induced by 5-MeO-DMT revealed similarities to electrophysiological states observed during slow-wave sleep (SWS) and rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep. Our findings suggest that the psychoactive effects of classical psychedelics are associated with the integration of waking behaviours with sleep-like spectral patterns in LFPs.

Correlation between desynchrony of hippocampal neural activity and hyperlocomotion in the model mice of schizophrenia and therapeutic effects of aripiprazole.

AIMS: The hippocampus has been reported to be morphologically and neurochemically altered in schizophrenia (SZ). Hyperlocomotion is a characteristic SZ-associated behavioral phenotype, which is associated with dysregulated dopamine system function induced by hippocampal hyperactivity. However, the neural mechanism of hippocampus underlying hyperlocomotion remains largely unclear. METHODS: Mouse pups were injected with N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist (MK-801) or vehicle twice daily on postnatal days (PND) 7-11. In the adulthood phase, one cohort of mice underwent electrode implantation in field CA1 of the hippocampus for the recording local field potentials and spike activity. A separate cohort of mice underwent surgery to allow for calcium imaging of the hippocampus while monitoring the locomotion. Lastly, the effects of atypical antipsychotic (aripiprazole, ARI) were evaluated on hippocampal neural activity. RESULTS: We found that the hippocampal theta oscillations were enhanced in MK-801-treated mice, but the correlation coefficient between the hippocampal spiking activity and theta oscillation was reduced. Consistently, although the rate and amplitude of calcium transients of hippocampal neurons were increased, their synchrony and correlation to locomotion speed were disrupted. ARI ameliorated perturbations produced by the postnatal MK-801 treatment. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that the disruption of neural coordination may underly the neuropathological mechanism for hyperlocomotion of SZ.

Interactions of catecholamines and GABA+ in cognitive control: Insights from EEG and 1H-MRS.

Catecholamines and amino acid transmitter systems are known to interact, the exact links and their impact on cognitive control functions have however remained unclear. Using a multi-modal imaging approach combining EEG and proton-magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS), we investigated the effect of different degrees of pharmacological catecholaminergic enhancement onto theta band activity (TBA) as a measure of interference control during response inhibition and execution. It was central to our study to evaluate the predictive impact of in-vivo baseline GABA+ concentrations in the striatum, the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the supplemental motor area (SMA) of healthy adults under varying degrees of methylphenidate (MPH) stimulation. We provide evidence for a predictive interrelation of baseline GABA+ concentrations in cognitive control relevant brain areas onto task-induced TBA during response control stimulated with MPH. Baseline GABA+ concentrations in the ACC, the striatum, and the SMA had a differential impact on predicting interference control-related TBA in response execution trials. GABA+ concentrations in the ACC appeared to be specifically important for TBA modulations when the cognitive effort needed for interference control was high - that is when no prior task experience exists, or in the absence of catecholaminergic enhancement with MPH. The study highlights the predictive role of baseline GABA+ concentrations in key brain areas influencing cognitive control and responsiveness to catecholaminergic enhancement, particularly in high-effort scenarios.

Acetylcholine Engages Distinct Amygdala Microcircuits to Gate Internal Theta Rhythm.

Acetylcholine (ACh) is released from basal forebrain cholinergic neurons in response to salient stimuli and engages brain states supporting attention and memory. These high ACh states are associated with theta oscillations, which synchronize neuronal ensembles. Theta oscillations in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) in both humans and rodents have been shown to underlie emotional memory, yet their mechanism remains unclear. Here, using brain slice electrophysiology in male and female mice, we show large ACh stimuli evoke prolonged theta oscillations in BLA local field potentials that depend upon M3 muscarinic receptor activation of cholecystokinin (CCK) interneurons (INs) without the need for external glutamate signaling. Somatostatin (SOM) INs inhibit CCK INs and are themselves inhibited by ACh, providing a functional SOM→CCK IN circuit connection gating BLA theta. Parvalbumin (PV) INs, which can drive BLA oscillations in baseline states, are not involved in the generation of ACh-induced theta, highlighting that ACh induces a cellular switch in the control of BLA oscillatory activity and establishes an internally BLA-driven theta oscillation through CCK INs. Theta activity is more readily evoked in BLA over the cortex or hippocampus, suggesting preferential activation of the BLA during high ACh states. These data reveal a SOM→CCK IN circuit in the BLA that gates internal theta oscillations and suggest a mechanism by which salient stimuli acting through ACh switch the BLA into a network state enabling emotional memory.

Lamotrigine Attenuates Neuronal Excitability, Depresses GABA Synaptic Inhibition, and Modulates Theta Rhythms in Rat Hippocampus.

Theta oscillations generated in hippocampal (HPC) and cortical neuronal networks are involved in various aspects of brain function, including sensorimotor integration, movement planning, memory formation and attention. Disruptions of theta rhythms are present in individuals with brain disorders, including epilepsy and Alzheimer's disease. Theta rhythm generation involves a specific interplay between cellular (ion channel) and network (synaptic) mechanisms. HCN channels are theta modulators, and several medications are known to enhance their activity. We investigated how different doses of lamotrigine (LTG), an HCN channel modulator, and antiepileptic and neuroprotective agent, would affect HPC theta rhythms in acute HPC slices (in vitro) and anaesthetized rats (in vivo). Whole-cell patch clamp recordings revealed that LTG decreased GABAA-fast transmission in CA3 cells, in vitro. In addition, LTG directly depressed CA3 and CA1 pyramidal neuron excitability. These effects were partially blocked by ZD 7288, a selective HCN blocker, and are consistent with decreased excitability associated with antiepileptic actions. Lamotrigine depressed HPC theta oscillations in vitro, also consistent with its neuronal depressant effects. In contrast, it exerted an opposite, enhancing effect, on theta recorded in vivo. The contradictory in vivo and in vitro results indicate that LTG increases ascending theta activating medial septum/entorhinal synaptic inputs that over-power the depressant effects seen in HPC neurons. These results provide new insights into LTG actions and indicate an opportunity to develop more precise therapeutics for the treatment of dementias, memory disorders and epilepsy.

Long-term stability of physiological signals within fluctuations of brain state under urethane anesthesia.

Urethane, an acute laboratory anesthetic, produces distinct neurophysiological and physiological effects creating an effective model of the dynamics of natural sleep. As a model of both sleep-like neurophysiological activity and the downstream peripheral function urethane is used to model a variety of physiological and pathophysiological processes. As urethane is typically administered as a single-bolus dose, it is unclear the stability of peripheral physiological functions both within and between brain-states under urethane anesthesia. In this present study, we recorded respiration rate and heart rate concurrently with local field potentials from the neocortex and hippocampus to determine the stability of peripheral physiological functions within and between brain-states under urethane anesthesia. Our data shows electroencephalographic characteristics and breathing rate are remarkable stable over long-term recordings within minor reductions in heart rate on the same time scale. Our findings indicate that the use of urethane to model peripheral physiological functions associated with changing brain states are stable during long duration experiments.

Tracking transient changes in the intrinsic neural frequency architecture: Oxytocin facilitates non-harmonic relationships between alpha and theta rhythms in the resting brain.

Shifts in the peak frequencies of oscillatory neural rhythms have been put forward as a principal mechanism by which cross-frequency coupling and decoupling is implemented in the brain. This notion is based on the mathematical reality that neural oscillations can only fully synchronize when their peak frequencies form harmonic 2:1 relationships (e.g., f2=f1/2). Non-harmonic cross-frequency relationships, on the other hand (based on the irrational golden mean 1.618.:1), provide the highest physiologically possible desynchronized state (reducing the occurrence of spurious, noisy, background coupling), and are therefore anticipated to characterize the resting state of the brain, in which no selective information processing takes place. The present study sought to assess whether the transient occurrence of 1.6:1 non-harmonic and 2:1 harmonic relationships between peak frequencies in the alpha (8-14 Hz) and theta (4-8 Hz) bands - respectively facilitating states of decoupling or coupling between oscillatory rhythms - are impacted by the intranasal administration of a single-dose of oxytocin (OT) or placebo. To do so, continuous resting-state electroencephalography (5 min eyes open, 19 electrodes) was obtained from 96 healthy adult men before and after nasal spray administration. The transient formation of non-harmonic cross-frequency configurations between alpha and theta peak frequencies was significantly increased after OT nasal spray administration, indicating an effect of OT on reducing the intrinsic occurrence of spurious (noisy) background phase synchronizations during resting-state. As a group, the OT group also showed a significant parallel increase in high-frequency and decrease in low-frequency heart rate variability, confirming a homeostatic role of OT in balancing parasympathetic drive. Overall, non-harmonic cross-frequency configurations have been put forward to lay the ground for a healthy neural network allowing the opportunity for an efficient transition from resting state to activity. The observed effects of OT on cross-frequency dynamics are therefore interpreted to reflect a homeostatic role of OT in increasing the signal-to-noise properties of the intrinsic EEG neural frequency architecture, i.e., by precluding the occurrence of 'noisy', unwanted, spurious couplings among neural rhythms in the resting brain.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor produced long-term synaptic enhancement in the anterior cingulate cortex of adult mice.

Previous studies have demonstrated that brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is one of the diffusible messengers for enhancing synaptic transmission in the hippocampus. Less information is available about the possible roles of BDNF in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). In the present study, we used 64-electrode array field recording system to investigate the effect of BDNF on ACC excitatory transmission. We found that BDNF enhanced synaptic responses in a dose-dependent manner in the ACC in C57/BL6 mice. The enhancement was long-lasting, and persisted for at least 3 h. In addition to the enhancement, BDNF also recruited inactive synaptic responses in the ACC. Bath application of the tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) receptor antagonist K252a blocked BDNF-induced enhancement. L-type voltage-gated calcium channels (L-VGCC), metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), but not NMDA receptors were required for BDNF-produced enhancement. Moreover, calcium-stimulated adenylyl cyclase subtype 1 (AC1) but not AC8 was essential for the enhancement. A selective AC1 inhibitor NB001 completely blocked the enhancement. Furthermore, BDNF-produced enhancement occluded theta burst stimulation (TBS) induced long-term potentiation (LTP), suggesting that they may share similar signaling mechanisms. Finally, the expression of BDNF-induced enhancement depends on postsynaptic incorporation of calcium-permeable AMPA receptors (CP-AMPARs) and protein kinase Mζ (PKMζ). Our results demonstrate that cortical BDNF may contribute to synaptic potentiation in the ACC.

Chronic antidepressant treatment rescues abnormally reduced REM sleep theta power in socially defeated rats.

The effects of chronic antidepressant (AD) treatment on sleep disturbances in rodent chronic stress models have not been thoroughly investigated. Here, we show that chronic social defeat stress (SDS) in rats induces prolonged social avoidance, alterations in sleep architecture (increased total rapid eye movement [REM] sleep duration, bout, and shortened REM latency), and contextual but not cued fear memory deficits, even 1 month after the last SDS. These abnormalities were associated with changes in electroencephalography (EEG) spectral powers, including reduced REM sleep theta power during the light phase. Chronic treatment with two different classes of antidepressants (ADs), imipramine and fluoxetine, significantly ameliorated these behavioral, sleep, and EEG abnormalities. Interestingly, REM theta power was normalized by chronic (1 month) but not 1 week AD administration and solely correlated with the ratio (an objective indicator) of social interaction 1 month after the last SDS. These data suggest that reductions in REM sleep theta power, an EEG parameter that has never been directly investigated in humans, is a core sleep symptom in socially defeated rats, and, potentially, also in patients with stress-related psychiatric disorders, including major depressive and posttraumatic stress disorders.

The Role of the Medial Septum-Associated Networks in Controlling Locomotion and Motivation to Move.

The Medial Septum and diagonal Band of Broca (MSDB) was initially studied for its role in locomotion. However, the last several decades were focussed on its intriguing function in theta rhythm generation. Early studies relied on electrical stimulation, lesions and pharmacological manipulation, and reported an inconclusive picture regarding the role of the MSDB circuits. Recent studies using more specific methodologies have started to elucidate the differential role of the MSDB's specific cell populations in controlling both theta rhythm and behaviour. In particular, a novel theory is emerging showing that different MSDB's cell populations project to different brain regions and control distinct aspects of behaviour. While the majority of these behaviours involve movement, increasing evidence suggests that MSDB-related networks govern the motivational aspect of actions, rather than locomotion per se. Here, we review the literature that links MSDB, theta activity, and locomotion and propose open questions, future directions, and methods that could be employed to elucidate the diverse roles of the MSDB-associated networks.

Theta-gamma coupling emerges from spatially heterogeneous cholinergic neuromodulation.

Theta and gamma rhythms and their cross-frequency coupling play critical roles in perception, attention, learning, and memory. Available data suggest that forebrain acetylcholine (ACh) signaling promotes theta-gamma coupling, although the mechanism has not been identified. Recent evidence suggests that cholinergic signaling is both temporally and spatially constrained, in contrast to the traditional notion of slow, spatially homogeneous, and diffuse neuromodulation. Here, we find that spatially constrained cholinergic stimulation can generate theta-modulated gamma rhythms. Using biophysically-based excitatory-inhibitory (E-I) neural network models, we simulate the effects of ACh on neural excitability by varying the conductance of a muscarinic receptor-regulated K+ current. In E-I networks with local excitatory connectivity and global inhibitory connectivity, we demonstrate that theta-gamma-coupled firing patterns emerge in ACh modulated network regions. Stable gamma-modulated firing arises within regions with high ACh signaling, while theta or mixed theta-gamma activity occurs at the peripheries of these regions. High gamma activity also alternates between different high-ACh regions, at theta frequency. Our results are the first to indicate a causal role for spatially heterogenous ACh signaling in the emergence of localized theta-gamma rhythmicity. Our findings also provide novel insights into mechanisms by which ACh signaling supports the brain region-specific attentional processing of sensory information.

Angiotensin II induces cognitive decline and anxiety-like behavior via disturbing pattern of theta-gamma oscillations.

Hypertension is the most common chronic disease accompanied by cognitive decline and anxiety-like behavior. Angiotensin II (Ang II) induces hypertension by activating angiotensin II receptor subtype 1 (AT1R). The purpose of the study was to examine the potential underlying mechanism of alterations in cognition and anxiety-like behavior induced by Ang II. Adult C57 mice were intraperitoneal injected with either 1 mg/kg/d Ang II or saline individually for 14 consecutive days. Ang II resulted in cognitive decline and anxious like behavior in C57 mice. Moreover, Ang II disturbed bidirectional synaptic plasticity and neural oscillation coupling between high theta and gamma on PP (perforant pathway)-DG (dentate gyrus) pathway. In addition, Ang II decreased the expression of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NR) 2A and NR 2B and increased the expression of GABAAR α1. The data suggest that Ang II disturb neural oscillations via altering excitatory and inhibitory (E/I) balance and eventually damage cognition and anxiety-like behavior in mice.

D-cycloserine normalizes long-term motor plasticity after transcranial magnetic intermittent theta-burst stimulation in major depressive disorder.

OBJECTIVES: Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is associated with glutamatergic alterations, including the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDA-R). The NMDA-R plays an important role in synaptic plasticity, and individuals with MDD have been shown to have impairments in repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) motor plasticity. Here, we test whether D-cycloserine, a NMDA-R partial agonist, can rescue TMS motor plasticity in MDD. METHODS: We conducted randomized double-blind placebo-controlled crossover studies in healthy (n = 12) and MDD (n = 12) participants. We stimulated motor cortex using TMS intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS) with placebo or D-cycloserine (100 mg). Motor evoked potentials (MEPs) were sampled before and after iTBS. Stimulus response curves (SRC) were characterized at baseline, +90 minutes, and the following day. RESULTS: Acute iTBS MEP facilitation is reduced in MDD and is not rescued by D-cycloserine. After iTBS, SRCs shift to indicate sustained decrease in excitability in healthy participants, yet increased in excitability in MDD participants. D-cycloserine normalized SRC changes from baseline to the following day in MDD participants. In both healthy and MDD participants, D-cycloserine stabilized changes in SRC. CONCLUSION: MDD is associated with alterations in motor plasticity that are rescued and stabilized by NMDA-R agonism. SIGNIFICANCE: Agonism of NMDA receptors rescues iTBS motor plasticity in MDD.

Efficacy of preclinical pharmacological interventions against alterations of neuronal network oscillations in Alzheimer's disease: A systematic review.

Despite the development of multiple pharmacological approaches over the years aimed at treating Alzheimer's Disease (AD) only very few have been approved for clinical use in patients. To date there still exists no disease-modifying treatment that could prevent or rescue the cognitive impairment, particularly of memory aquisition, that is characteristic of AD. One of the possibilities for this state of affairs might be that the majority of drug discovery efforts focuses on outcome measures of decreased neuropathological biomarkers characteristic of AD, without taking into acount neuronal processes essential to the generation and maintenance of memory processes. Particularly, the capacity of the brain to generate theta (θ) and gamma (γ) oscillatory activity has been strongly correlated to memory performance. Using a systematic review approach, we synthesize the existing evidence in the literature on pharmacological interventions that enhance neuronal theta (θ) and/or gamma (γ) oscillations in non-pathological animal models and in AD animal models. Additionally, we synthesize the main outcomes and neurochemical systems targeted. We propose that functional biomarkers such as cognition-relevant neuronal network oscillations should be used as outcome measures during the process of research and development of novel drugs against cognitive impairment in AD.

VEGF Modulates the Neural Dynamics of Hippocampal Subregions in Chronic Global Cerebral Ischemia Rats.

Theta and gamma rhythms in hippocampus are important to cognitive performance. The cognitive impairments following cerebral ischemia is linked with the dysfunction of theta and gamma oscillations. As the primary mechanism for learning and memory, synaptic plasticity is in connection with these neural oscillations. Although vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is thought to protect synaptic function in the ischemia rats to relieve cognitive impairment, little has been done on its effect of neural dynamics with this process. The present study investigated whether the alternation of neural oscillations in the hippocampus of ischemia rats is one of the potential neuroprotective mechanisms of VEGF. Rats were treated with the intranasal administration of VEGF at 72 h following chronic global cerebral ischemia procedure. Then local field potentials (LFPs) in hippocampal CA1 and CA3 regions were recorded and analyzed. Our results showed that VEGF can improve the power of theta and gamma rhythms in CA1 region after ischemia. Chronic global cerebral ischemia reduced the theta-gamma phase-amplitude coupling (PAC) not only within CA1 area but also in the pathway from CA3 to CA1, while VEGF alleviated the decreased coupling strength. Despite these notable differences, there were no obvious changes in the PAC within CA3 region. Surprisingly, the ischemia state did not affect the phase-phase interaction of hippocampus. In conclusion, our findings demonstrated that VEGF enhanced the theta-gamma PAC strength of CA3-CA1 pathway in ischemia rats, which may futher improve the information transmission within the hippocampus. These results illustrated the potential electrophysiologic mechanism of VEGF on cognitive improvement.

Mechanism of Intermittent Theta-Burst Stimulation in Synaptic Pathology in the Prefrontal Cortex in an Antidepressant-Resistant Depression Rat Model.

Intermittent theta-burst stimulation (iTBS), a form of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation, is considered a potential therapy for treatment-resistant depression. The synaptic mechanism of iTBS has long been known to be an effective method to induce long-term potentiation (LTP)-like plasticity in humans. However, there is limited evidence as to whether the antidepressant effect of iTBS is associated with change in synaptic function in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) in preclinical study. Hence, we applied an antidepressant (i.e., fluoxetine)-resistant depression rat model induced by severe foot-shocks to investigate the antidepressant efficacy of iTBS in the synaptic pathology. The results showed that iTBS treatment improved not only the impaired LTP, but also the aberrant long-term depression in the PFC of antidepressant-resistant depression model rats. Moreover, the mechanism of LTP improvement by iTBS involved downstream molecules of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, while the mechanism of long-term depression improvement by iTBS involved downstream molecules of proBDNF. The aberrant spine morphology was also improved by iTBS treatment. This study demonstrated that the mechanism of the iTBS paradigm is complex and may regulate not only excitatory but also inhibitory synaptic effects in the PFC.

Measuring the effects of first antiepileptic medication in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy: Predictive value of quantitative-EEG analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the quantitative EEG responses in a population of drug-naïve patients with Temporal Lobe Epilepsy (TLE) after Levetiracetam (LEV) initiation as first antiepileptic drug (AED). We hypothesized that the outcome of AED treatment can be predicted from EEG data in patients with TLE. METHODS: Twenty-three patients with TLE and twenty-five healthy controls were examined. Clinical outcome was dichotomized into seizure-free (SF) and non-seizure-free (NSF) after two years of LEV. EEG parameters were compared between healthy controls and patients with TLE at baseline (EEGpre) and after three months of AED therapy (EEGpre-post) and between SF and NSF patients. Receiver Operating Characteristic curves models were built to test whether EEG parameters predicted outcome. RESULTS: AED therapy induces an increase in EEG power for Alpha (p = 0.06) and a decrease in Theta (p < 0.05). Connectivity values were lower in SF compared to NSF patients (p < 0.001). Quantitative EEG predicted outcome after LEV treatment with an estimated accuracy varying from 65.2% to 91.3% (area under the curve [AUC] = 0.56-0.93) for EEGpre and from 69.9% to 86.9% (AUC = 0.69-0.94) for EEGpre-post. CONCLUSIONS: AED therapy induces EEG modifications in TLE patients, and such modifications are predictive of clinical outcome. SIGNIFICANCE: Quantitative EEG may help understanding the effect of AEDs in the central nervous system and offer new prognostic biomarkers for patients with epilepsy.

Somatostatin Neurons Govern Theta Oscillations Induced by Salient Visual Signals.

Salient visual stimuli enhance theta oscillations and spike-phase locking in the theta band in the primary visual cortex (V1) of mice; however, the detailed mechanisms remain unknown. GABAergic neurons play a vital role in regulating these oscillations. Here, we use optogenetic recordings to tag cell-type-specific neurons in V1 of head-fixed mice and demonstrate that salient visual stimuli facilitate somatostatin (SOM)-expressing neuron responses and firing with theta band oscillations but suppress activities of parvalbumin (PV)-expressing neurons. Furthermore, inactivation of SOM neurons attenuates the enhancement of theta oscillations induced by salient visual stimuli and rhythmic activation of SOM neurons enhances theta oscillations. These results reveal a potential cortical theta oscillation mechanism governed by SOM neurons.