Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation-Associated Compartment Syndrome: Review of a National Database.

INTRODUCTION: Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO)-associated compartment syndrome (CS) is a rare complication seen in critically ill patients. The epidemiology and management of ECMO-associated CS in the upper extremity (UE) and lower extremity (LE) are poorly defined in the literature. We sought to determine the epidemiology and characterize treatment and outcomes of UE-CS compared to LE-CS in the setting of ECMO therapy. METHODS: Adult patients undergoing ECMO therapy were identified in the Nationwide Readmission Database (2015-2019) and followed up for 6 months. Patients were stratified based on UE-CS versus LE-CS. Primary outcomes were fasciotomy and amputation. All-cause mortality and length of stay were also collected. Risk-adjusted modeling was performed to determine patient- and hospital-level factors associated with differences in the management UE-CS versus LE-CS while controlling for confounders. RESULTS: A total of 24,047 cases of ECMO during hospitalization were identified of which 598 were complicated by CS. Of this population, 507 cases were in the LE (84.8%), while 91 (15.5%) were in the UE. After multivariate analysis, UE-CS patients were less likely to undergo fasciotomy (50.5 vs. 70.9; P = 0.013) and were less likely to undergo amputation of the extremity (3.3 vs. 23.7; P = 0.001) although there was no difference in mortality (58.4 vs. 65.4; P = 0.330). CONCLUSIONS: ECMO patients with CS experience high mortality and morbidity. UE-CS has lower rates of fasciotomy and amputations, compared to LE-CS, with similar mortality. Further studies are needed to elucidate the reasons for these differences.

Acute Compartment Syndrome Following Thrombolysis For Acute Lower Limb Ischemia.

BACKGROUND: Acute Compartment syndrome (ACS) with subsequent need for fasciotomy is a serious and insidious complication after revascularization for acute lower limb ischemia (ALI). The development of ACS during endovascular catheter directed thrombolysis is particularly difficult to identify. The aim was to identify the incidence, predisposing factors, wound treatment, and outcome in terms of amputation and survival for patients presenting with ALI that develop ACS during catheter directed thrombolysis. Patients who did not develop ACS after thrombolysis were analyzed as controls. METHODS: Descriptive retrospective analysis of prospective databases from two large tertiary-referral vascular centers. Patients with ACS after thrombolysis for ALI between 2001-2017 were analyzed. RESULTS: Seventy-eight cases and 621 controls were identified. Mean age was 72 years and 30 (38.5%) were women in the ACS group. Patients that developed ACS presented with significantly more severe preoperative ischemia. With 38.5% having Rutherford 2b classification as compared to 22.7 % in the control group (P = 0.002). Occluded popliteal artery aneurysms were also associated with a higher incidence of ACS (P = 0.041). Treatment of the fasciotomy wound was most commonly treated with regular wound dressing in 45 (58%) of cases, while wound dressing and foot pump and vacuum assisted closure were used in 14 (18%) and 19 (24%) respectively. These differing approaches did not affect the number of wound infections and amputations, which was similar regardless of treatment type. Vacuum assisted closure was associated with a higher degree of skin graft closure (P = 0.001). The median time to complete wound closure was 10 days. One year after thrombolysis, the major amputation rate in the ACS group was 31% as opposed to 17% in control group, P = 0.003. Mortality measured at 16.7% and 15.3%, respectively, P = 0.872. Amputation-free survival in the ACS group was 62% vs. 73% in the control group, P = 0.035. These differences level out, however, when applying long-term analysis of amputation-free survival in Kaplan-Meier analysis (log-rank 0.103). CONCLUSIONS: Patients that developed ACS during endovascular CDT presented with a more severe pre-operative ischemia, more occluded popliteal artery aneurysms and had a higher amputation rate during the first year, compared to controls. The development of ACS during endovascular treatment of ALI with thrombolysis is not uncommon and warrants both clinical awareness and rapid treatment.

Malpractice Litigation for Compartment Syndrome.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to analyze litigation involving compartment syndrome to identify the causes and outcomes of such malpractice suits. A better understanding of such litigation may provide insight into areas where clinicians may make improvements in the delivery of care. METHODS: Jury verdict reviews from the Westlaw database from January 1, 2010 to January 1, 2018 were reviewed. The search term "compartment syndrome" was used to identify cases and extract data on the specialty of the physician defendant, the demographics of the plaintiff, the allegation, and the verdict. RESULTS: A total of 124 individual cases involving the diagnosis of compartment syndrome were identified. Medical centers or the hospital was included as a defendant in 51.6% of cases. The most frequent physician defendants were orthopedic surgeons (45.96%) and emergency medicine physicians (20.16%), followed by cardiothoracic/vascular surgeons (16.93%). Failure to diagnose was the most frequently cited claim (71.8% of cases). Most plaintiffs were men, with a mean age of 36.7 years, suffering injuries for an average of 5 years before their verdict. Traumatic compartment syndrome of the lower extremity causing nerve damage was the most common complication attributed to failure to diagnose, leading to litigation. Forty cases (32.25%) were found for the plaintiff or settled, with an average award of $1,553,993.66. CONCLUSIONS: Our study offers a brief overview of the most common defendants, plaintiffs, and injuries involved in legal disputes involving compartment syndrome. Orthopedic surgeons were most commonly named; however, vascular surgeons may also be involved in these cases because of the large number of cases with associated arterial involvement. A significant percentage of cases were plaintiff verdicts or settled cases. Failure to diagnosis or delay in treatment was the most common causes of malpractice litigation. Compartment syndrome is a clinical diagnosis and requires a high level of suspicion for a timely diagnosis. Lack of objective criteria for diagnosis increases the chances of medical errors and makes it an area vulnerable to litigation.

Risk factors for death and amputation in acute leg compartment syndrome.

INTRODUCTION: The primary objective of this study is to determine whether time from injury to fasciotomy is associated with increased risk for death or limb amputation in patients with acute leg compartment syndrome. The secondary objective of this study is to identify other risk factors for death or limb amputation in patients with acute leg compartment syndrome. METHODS: In an institutional review board approved retrospective study, we identified 546 patients with acute compartment syndrome of 558 legs treated with fasciotomies from January 2000 to June 2015 at two Level I trauma centers. Our primary outcome measures were death and limb amputation during inpatient hospital admission. Electronic medical records were analyzed for patient-related factors and treatment-related factors. Bivariate analyses were used to screen for variables associated with our primary outcome measures, and explanatory variables with a p value below 0.05 were included in our multivariable logistic regression analyses. RESULTS: In-hospital death occurred in 6.6% and in-hospital limb amputation occurred in 9.5% of acute leg compartment syndrome patients. Neither death nor limb amputation was found to be associated with time from injury to fasciotomy. Multivariable logistic regression analyses showed that older age (p = 0.03), higher modified Charlson Comorbidity Index (p = 0.009), higher potassium (p = 0.02), lower hemoglobin (p = 0.002), and higher lactate (p < 0.001) were associated with death, and diabetes mellitus (p = 0.05), no compartment pressure measurement (p = 0.009), higher PTT (p = 0.03), and lower albumin (p = 0.01) were associated with limb amputation. CONCLUSIONS: Time to fasciotomy is not found to be associated with death or limb amputation in acute leg compartment syndrome. Death and limb amputation are associated with patient-related factors and injury severity. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III Prognostic.

Current Approach to the Evaluation and Management of Abdominal Compartment Syndrome in Pediatric Patients.

Abdominal compartment syndrome is an emergent condition caused by increased pressure within the abdominal compartment. It can be caused by a number of etiologies, which are associated with decreased abdominal wall compliance, increased intraluminal or intraperitoneal contents, or edema from capillary leak or fluid resuscitation. The history and physical examination are of limited utility, and the criterion standard for diagnosis is intra-abdominal pressure measurement, which is typically performed via an intravesical catheter. Management includes increasing abdominal wall compliance, evacuating gastrointestinal or intraperitoneal contents, avoiding excessive fluid resuscitation, and decompressive laparotomy in select cases.

Abdominal compartment syndrome in traumatic hemorrhagic shock: is there a fluid resuscitation inflection point associated with increased risk?

BACKGROUND: The volume of fluid administered during trauma resuscitation correlates with the risk of abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS). The exact volume at which this risk rises is uncertain. We established the inflection point for ACS risk during shock resuscitation. METHODS: Using the Glue Grant database, patients aged ≥16 years with ACS were compared with those without ACS (no-ACS). Stepwise analysis of the sum or difference of the mean total fluid volume (TV)/kg, TV and/or body weight, (µ) and standard deviations (σ) vs % ACS at each point was used to determine the fluid inflection point. RESULTS: A total of 1,976 patients were included, of which 122 (6.2%) had ACS. Compared with no-ACS, ACS patients had a higher emergency room lactate (5.8 ± 3.0 vs 4.5 ± 2.8, P < .001), international normalized ratio (1.8 ± 1.5 vs 1.4 ± .8, P < .001), and mortality (37.7% vs 14.6%, P < .001). ACS group received a higher TV/kg (498 ± 268 mL/kg vs 293 ± 171 mL/kg, P < .001) than no-ACS. The % ACS increased exponentially with the sum of µ and incremental σ, with the sharpest increase occurring at TV and/or body weight = µ + 3σ or 1,302 mL/kg. CONCLUSIONS: There is a dramatic rise in ACS risk after 1,302 mL/kg of fluid is administered. This plot could serve as a guide in limiting the ACS risk during resuscitation.

The outcome of tibial diaphyseal fractures in the elderly.

We describe the outcome of tibial diaphyseal fractures in the elderly (≥ 65 years of age). We prospectively followed 233 fractures in 225 elderly patients over a minimum ten-year period. Demographic and descriptive data were acquired from a prospective trauma database. Mortality status was obtained from the General Register Office database for Scotland. Diaphyseal fractures of the tibia in the elderly occurred predominantly in women (73%) and after a fall (61%). During the study period the incidence of these fractures decreased, nearly halving in number. The 120-day and one-year unadjusted mortality rates were 17% and 27%, respectively, and were significantly greater in patients with an open fracture (p < 0.001). The overall standardised mortality ratio (SMR) was significantly increased (SMR 4.4, p < 0.001) relative to the population at risk, and was greatest for elderly women (SMR 8.1, p < 0.001). These frailer patients had more severe injuries, with an increased rate of open fractures (30%), and suffered a greater rate of nonunion (10%). Tibial diaphyseal fractures in the elderly are most common in women after a fall, are more likely to be open than in the rest of the population, and are associated with a high incidence of nonunion and mortality.

Acute compartment syndrome of the thigh in combat casualties.

Acute compartment syndrome of the thigh is a rare clinical entity often caused by high-energy trauma and presenting with a spectrum of associated injuries. Service members in combat are at risk for these causative mechanisms. This study presents a large cohort of thigh compartment syndrome combat casualties and investigates the injury mechanisms, associated mortality, and complications related to fasciotomies. Blasts were the most frequent injury mechanism, overall mortality was 23%, burns were associated with a higher mortality, and fasciotomy morbidity was reported by all respondents. The mortality was similar to civilian cohorts with thigh compartment syndrome and was isolated to patients with high Injury Severity Scores. While mortality associated with this injury is high, it is likely related to associated injury patterns rather than the compartment syndrome itself. Thigh compartment fasciotomies carried significant morbidity, consistent with civilian trauma publications.

Compartment syndrome performance improvement project is associated with increased combat casualty survival.

BACKGROUND: In 2008, we showed that incomplete or delayed extremity fasciotomies were associated with mortality and muscle necrosis in war casualties with limb injury. Subsequently, we developed an education program focused on surgeon knowledge gaps regarding the diagnosis of compartment syndrome and prophylactic fasciotomy. The program included educational alerts, classroom training, video instruction, and a research publication. We compared casualty data before and after the program implementation to determine whether the education altered outcomes. METHODS: Similar to the previous study, a case series was made from combat casualty medical records. Casualties were US military servicemen with fasciotomies performed in Iraq, Afghanistan, or Germany between two periods (periods 1 and 2). RESULTS: In both periods, casualty demographics were similar. Most fasciotomies were performed to the lower leg and forearm. Period 1 had 336 casualties with 643 fasciotomies, whereas Period 2 had 268 casualties with 1,221 fasciotomies (1.9 vs. 4.6 fasciotomies per casualty, respectively; p < 0.0001). The mortality rate decreased in Period 2 (3%, 8 of 268 casualties) from Period 1 (8%, 26 of 336 casualties; p = 0.0125). Muscle excision and major amputation rates were similar in both periods (p > 0.05). Rates of casualties with revision fasciotomy decreased to 8% in Period 2, (22 of 268 casualties) versus 15% in Period 1 (51 of 336 casualties; p = 0.009). CONCLUSION: Combat casualty care following implementation of a fasciotomy education program was associated with improved survival, higher fasciotomy rates, and fewer revisions. Because delayed fasciotomy rates were unchanged, further effort to educate providers may be indicated. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic study, level IV.

Advanced age may limit the survival benefit of open abdominal decompression.

Open abdominal decompression (OAD) and temporary abdominal closure (TAC) are widely performed for the treatment of intra-abdominal hypertension and/or abdominal compartment syndrome. During 2005 to 2009, 405 consecutive patients required OAD/TAC (trauma 68%, surgery 24%, medicine 5%, burn 3%). Overall patient survival to hospital discharge was 65 per cent regardless of age and was significantly decreased among patients older than 70 years of age (P < 0.0001). Survival by decade of life exceeded 50 per cent through the eighth decade but decreased to 19 per cent for the ninth decade (older than 80 years of age). Survival varied significantly by service (trauma 72%, surgical 56%, burns 55%, medical 33%) (P < 0.0001). Successful definitive fascial closure rates (range, 75 to 100%) were equivalent among all age groups (P = 0.78). Survival after OAD/TAC varies by decade of life and mechanism of injury/illness. Age alone should not negate the use of OAD/TAC. Reasonable survival rates may be expected for patients younger than 80 years of age.

Beneficial effects of theophylline infusions in surgical patients with intra-abdominal hypertension.

BACKGROUND: Intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) can cause high mortality. Recently, we found that IAH was associated with increased serum levels of adenosine and interleukin 10. Our present "hypothesis-generated study" was based on the above mentioned results. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this uncontrolled clinical trial, a total of 78 patients with IAH were enrolled representing a 13-20 mmHg range of intra-abdominal pressure (IAP). Patients requiring surgical abdominal decompression were excluded. Patients were treated with the following protocols: standard supportive therapy (ST, n = 38) or ST plus infusion with the adenosine receptor antagonist theophylline (T, n = 40). Over the 5-day measurement period, IAP was monitored continuously and serum adenosine concentration and other clinical and laboratory measurements were monitored daily. Mortality was followed for the first 30 days following the diagnosis of IAH. RESULTS: Mortality of ST patients was 55%, which is compatible to other studies. Serum adenosine concentration was found to be directly proportional to IAP. Of the 40 patients receiving T treatment, survival was 100%. An increased survival related to theophylline infusion correlated with improving serum concentrations of IL-10, urea, and creatinine, as well as 24-h urine output, fluid balance, mean arterial pressure, and O(2)Sat. CONCLUSIONS: Adenosine receptor antagonism with T following IAH diagnosis resulted in markedly reduced mortality in patients with moderated IAH (<20 mmHg). Theophylline-associated mortality reduction may be related to improved renal perfusion and improved MAP, presumably caused by adenosine receptor blockade. Because this study was not a randomized controlled study, these compelling observations require further multicentric clinical confirmation.

Update on management of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome.

Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS) is a relatively common complication of ovarian stimulation and can be life threatening. The pathophysiology of OHSS is characterized by increased capillary permeability, leading to leakage of fluid from the vascular compartment, with third-space fluid accumulation and intravascular dehydration. The increased intra-abdominal pressure indicated that OHSS may be considered a compartment syndrome. Vascular endothelial growth factor, also known as vascular permeability factor, has emerged as one of the mediators intrinsic to the development of OHSS. Conventional management is focused on supportive care until the spontaneous resolution of the condition. The standard of care for treatment-monitoring of appropriate clinical parameters, fluid balance management, thrombosis prophylaxis, and ascites treatment-should prevent severe morbidity in most cases. This review will cover inpatient and outpatient management. The potential therapeutic approach targeting the vascular endothelial growth factor system will be discussed.

Subcutaneous linea alba fasciotomy, does it really work?

Subcutaneous linea alba fasciotomy (SLAF) is a minimally invasive treatment method for abdominal compartment syndrome initially used in severe acute pancreatitis (SAP). A retrospective analysis of the first 10 patients with SAP undergoing SLAF was performed to analyze the effect and outcome of this decompressive procedure. The mean age of the patients was 46 (range 33-61) years. SLAF was performed 1 to 17 days postadmission, in six cases within 48 hours. The mean (range) preoperative intra-abdominal pressure was 31 (23-45) mm Hg and immediate postoperative intra-abdominal pressure was 20 (10-33) mm Hg. The mean decrease was 10 (2-17) mm Hg and the decompressive effect was considered sufficient in six cases. A completion laparostomy within 24 hours was required in four cases. The mean preoperative Sequential Organ Failure Assessment score was 12 (4-17) and 11 (1-20) 1 to 5 days postoperatively. The decrease was five or more score points in three patients with successful SLAF. The overall mortality and morbidity rates were 4/10 and 2/10; no complications were attributed to the SLAF itself. It is concluded that SLAF is a safe decompressive technique in SAP-related abdominal compartment syndrome. The initial effect is sufficient in about half of the patients. A completion midline laparostomy is required in the nonresponders.

Abdominal compartment syndrome in childhood: diagnostics, therapy and survival rate.

PURPOSE: The abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) in childhood is a rare but dire disease if diagnosed delayed and treated improperly. The mortality amounts up to 60% (Beck et al. in Pediatr Crit Care Med 2:51-56, 2001). ACS is defined by a sustained rise of the intraabdominal pressure (IAP) together with newly developed organ dysfunction. The present study reports on 28 children with ACS to evaluate its potential role in the diagnosis, treatment and outcome of ACS. METHODS: Retrospectively, medical reports and outcome of 28 children were evaluated who underwent surgical treatment for ACS. The diagnosis of ACS was established by clinical signs, intravesical pressure-measurements and concurrent organ dysfunction. RESULTS: Primary ACS was found in 25 children (89.3%) predominantly resulting from polytrauma and peritonitis. Three children presented secondary ACS with sepsis (2 cases) and combustion (1 case) being the underlying causative diseases. Therapy of choice was the decompression of the abdominal cavity with implantation of an absorbable Vicryl(®) mesh. In 18 cases the abdominal cavity could be closed later, while in the other ten cases granulation of the mesh was allowed. The overall survival rate was 78.6% (22 of 28 children). The cause of death in the remaining six cases (21.4%) was sepsis with multiorgan failure. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that early establishment of the specific diagnosis of ACS followed by swift therapy with reduction of intraabdominal hypertension is essential in order to further reduce the high mortality rate associated with this condition.

Surgical decompression for abdominal compartment syndrome in severe acute pancreatitis.

HYPOTHESIS: In patients with severe acute pancreatitis and abdominal compartment syndrome, establishment of the indications and optimal time for surgical decompression may avoid exacerbation of multiple-organ dysfunction syndrome. DESIGN: Retrospective study. SETTING: Tertiary care university teaching hospital. PATIENTS: Twenty-six consecutive patients with severe acute pancreatitis and abdominal compartment syndrome treated by surgical decompression between January 1, 2002, and December 31, 2007. INTERVENTION: Surgical decompression of the abdomen. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Morbidity, mortality, and organ dysfunction before and after surgical decompression. RESULTS: At the time of surgical decompression, the median sequential organ failure assessment score among patients was 12 (interquartile range, 10-15), and the median intra-abdominal pressure was 31.5 (interquartile range, 27-35) mm Hg. After surgical decompression, renal or respiratory function was improved in 14 patients (54%). The overall hospital mortality was 46%, but mortality was 18% among 17 patients in whom surgical decompression was performed within the first 4 days after disease onset. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with severe acute pancreatitis and abdominal compartment syndrome managed by surgical decompression had severe multiple-organ dysfunction syndrome and high mortality. Surgical decompression may improve renal or respiratory function. Early surgical decompression is associated with reduced mortality in patients with severe acute pancreatitis, early multiple-organ dysfunction syndrome, and abdominal compartment syndrome.

Early results after treatment of open abdomen after aortic surgery with mesh traction and vacuum-assisted wound closure.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to describe the use of vacuum-assisted wound closure (VAWC) and mesh traction to repair an open abdomen after aortic surgery. DESIGN: Prospective clinical study. MATERIAL AND METHODS: From October 2006 to April 2009, nine consecutive patients were treated; seven of the patients received laparostomy following abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS), while two wounds were left open initially. The indication for laparostomy was intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) > 20 mmHg or abdominal perfusion pressure (APP) < 60 mmHg and development of organ failure. V.A.C. therapy (KCI, San Antonio, TX, USA) was initiated with the laparostomy, and supplemented with a fascial mesh after 2 days. The wound was then closed stepwise with mesh traction and VAWC. RESULTS: All wounds could be closed following a median interval of 10.5 (range: 6-19) days after laparostomy. A median of four (range: 2-7) dressing changes were performed. One patient died on the seventh postoperative day. Two other patients died 38 and 50 days after final closure, respectively. Left colonic necrosis was seen in two patients while incisional hernia was observed in two patients. Mean follow-up duration was 17 (range: 2-36) months. CONCLUSION: VAWC with mesh traction was successful in terms of early delayed primary closure and is a useful tool in the treatment of open abdomen after aortic surgery.

Is the evolving management of intra-abdominal hypertension and abdominal compartment syndrome improving survival?

OBJECTIVE: The diagnosis and management of intra-abdominal hypertension and abdominal compartment syndrome have changed significantly over the past decade with improved understanding of the pathophysiology and appropriate treatment of these disease processes. Serial intra-abdominal pressure measurements, nonoperative pressure-reducing interventions, and early abdominal decompression for refractory intra-abdominal hypertension or abdominal compartment syndrome are all key elements of this evolving strategy. DESIGN: Prospective, observational study. SETTING: Tertiary referral/level I trauma center. PATIENTS: Four hundred seventy-eight consecutive patients requiring an open abdomen for the management of intra-abdominal hypertension or abdominal compartment syndrome. INTERVENTIONS: Patients were managed by a defined group of surgical intensivists using established definitions and an evidence-based management algorithm. Both univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to identify patient and management factors associated with improved survival. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Whereas patient demographics and severity of illness remained unchanged over the 6-yr study period, the use of a continually revised intra-abdominal hypertension/abdominal compartment syndrome management algorithm significantly increased patient survival to hospital discharge from 50% to 72% (p = .015). Clinically significant decreases in resource utilization and an increase in same-admission primary fascial closure from 59% to 81% were recognized. Development of abdominal compartment syndrome, prophylactic use of an open abdomen to prevent development of intra-abdominal hypertension/abdominal compartment syndrome, and use of a multi-modality surgical/medical management algorithm were identified as independent predictors of survival. CONCLUSIONS: A comprehensive evidence-based management strategy that includes early use of an open abdomen in patients at risk significantly improves survival from intra-abdominal hypertension/abdominal compartment syndrome. This improvement is not achieved at the cost of increased resource utilization and is associated with an increased rate of primary fascial closure.