Widespread illegal sales of antibiotics in Chinese pharmacies - a nationwide cross-sectional study.

Background: Access to antibiotics without a prescription from retail pharmacies has been described as a major contributor to anti-microbial resistance (AMR) globally. In the context of high rates of AMR, the Chinese government has recently introduced strict policies regarding hospital antibiotic use, but the existing ban on antibiotic sales without prescription in retail pharmacies has not been strongly enforced. In 2016, a goal of prescription-only antibiotics by 2020 was announced. The objective of the study was to determine progress towards the 2020 goal, through estimating the proportion of retail pharmacies selling antibiotics without prescription across the three regions of mainland China. Methods: Using the Simulated Patient method, we conducted a cross-sectional survey across purposively-sampled retail pharmacies in urban and rural areas of 13 provinces in eastern, central and western China. Medical students presented a scenario of a mild upper respiratory tract infection, following a strict three-step protocol. They recorded the pharmacy characteristics, and details of their experience, including at which step antibiotics were offered. Results: Complete data were obtained from 1106 pharmacies. Antibiotics were obtained in 925 (83.6, 95% CI: 81.5, 85.8%) pharmacies without a prescription, 279 (25.2%) at Stage 1 (symptoms only described), 576 (52.1%) at stage 2 (asked for antibiotics), and 70 (6.3%) at Stage 3 (asked for penicillin or cephalosporins). There were significant differences between provinces, with antibiotic access (at any stage) ranging from 57.0% (57/100) in Zhejiang (81/82) to 98.8% in Guizhou. However, there were no significant differences in access to antibiotics by level of city, county, township or village (P = 0.25), whether the pharmacy was part of a chain or independent (P = 0.23), whether a licensed pharmacist was attending (P = 0.82) or whether there was a sign saying that prescriptions were required for antibiotics (P = 0.19). Conclusions: It is easy to obtain antibiotics without a prescription in retail pharmacies in China, despite the fact it is against the law. This must be addressed as part of the wider anti-microbial stewardship effort which could include intense enforcement of the existing law, supported by a public education campaign.

Establishing research priorities in prevention and control of vector-borne diseases in urban areas: a collaborative process.

BACKGROUND: In 2015, following a call for proposals from the Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR), six scoping reviews on the prevention and control of vector-borne diseases in urban areas were conducted. Those reviews provided a clear picture of the available knowledge and highlighted knowledge gaps, as well as needs and opportunities for future research. Based on the research findings of the scoping reviews, a concept mapping exercise was undertaken to produce a list of priority research needs to be addressed. METHODS: Members of the six research teams responsible for the "VEctor boRne DiseAses Scoping reviews" (VERDAS) consortium's scoping reviews met for 2 days with decision-makers from Colombia, Brazil, Peru, Pan-American Health Organization, and World Health Organization. A total of 11 researchers and seven decision-makers (from ministries of health, city and regional vector control departments, and vector control programs) completed the concept mapping, answering the question: "In view of the knowledge synthesis and your own expertise, what do we still need to know about vector-borne diseases and other infectious diseases of poverty in urban areas?" Participants rated each statement on two scales from 1 to 5, one relative to 'priority' and the other to 'policy relevance', and grouped statements into clusters based on their own individual criteria and expertise. RESULTS: The final map consisted of 12 clusters. Participants considered those entitled "Equity", "Technology", and "Surveillance" to have the highest priority. The cluster considered the most important concerns equity issues, confirming that these issues are rarely addressed in research on vector-borne diseases. On the other hand, the "Population mobility" and "Collaboration" clusters were considered to be the lowest priority but remained identified by participants as research priorities. The average policy relevance scores for each of the 12 clusters were roughly the same as the priority scores for all clusters. Some issues were not addressed during the brain-storming. This is the case for governance and for access and quality of care. CONCLUSIONS: Based on this work, and adopting a participatory approach, the concept mapping exercise conducted collaboratively with researchers from these teams and high-level decision-makers identified research themes for which studies should be carried out as a priority.

The air of Europe: where are we going?

Air pollution constitutes one of the main threats to public health in Europe. Significant impacts on the health of Europeans in terms of morbidity and mortality have been observed, even in cases of low exposure and where pollutant levels are within limits set by the European Union (EU). The respiratory system is a primary target of the harmful effects of key air pollutants. Emissions of many air pollutants have decreased substantially over the past decades in Europe, resulting in diminished concentrations and improved air quality. However, in several European cities concentrations still exceed EU reference values and, more often, the stricter World Health Organization air quality guidelines for all regulated air pollutants (particles with 50% cut-off aerodynamic diameters of 10 and 2.5 µm, nitrogen dioxide (NO2), benzo[a]pyrene and ozone (O3)) except sulfur dioxide. In addition, current trends indicate that in the absence of substantial changes, particulate matter, NO2 and O3 will still exceed limits in 2020. Additional efforts must be made to comply with current standards and guidelines. These should include a more accurate and detailed monitoring of air pollutants, reduction of emissions and individual behaviour changes.

Generating global political priority for urban health: the role of the urban health epistemic community.

Over the past decade there has been much discussion of the challenges posed by rapid urbanization in the developing world; yet the health of the urban poor, and especially those residing in low- and middle-income countries, continues to receive little political priority in most developing countries and at the global level. This research applies social science scholarship and a public policy analytical framework to assess the factors that have challenged efforts to make health in urban poor settings a priority. We conducted 19 semi-structured phone interviews with key urban health proponents and experts representing agencies that shape opinions and manage resources in global health. We also conducted a literature review, which included published scholarly literature and reports from organizations involved in urban health provision and advocacy. Utilizing a process-tracing method, we triangulated among these sources of data to create a historical narrative and analyse the factors that shape the global level of attention to and resources for urban health. The urban health agenda continues to be challenged by six factors, three of which concern the political context or characteristics of the issue: long-standing competition with the dominant development agenda that is rural health oriented; limited data and measurement tools that can effectively gauge the extent of the problem; and lack of evidence on how to best to address the issue. The other three factors are directly under the control of the urban health community: the community's ineffective governance; little common understanding among its members of the problem and how to address it; and an unconvincing framing of the issue to the public. The study offers suggestions as to what advocates can do to secure greater attention and resources in order to help address the health needs of the urban poor.

Social representations of health councilors regarding the right to health and citizenship. / Representações sociais de conselheiros de saúde acerca do direito à saúde e da cidadania.

OBJECTIVE: To know the structure of the social representations of right to health and citizenship of health municipal councilors. METHOD: This is a qualitative study, based on the central nucleus theory of social representations, carried out in eight municipalities of the Integrated Region for the Development of the Surroundings of the Federal District, Brazil. The intentional sample consisted of municipal health councilors. Between June and December 2012, free recall questionnaires were used, of which 68 were answered with the inducing term health, and 64 with the inducing term citizenship. Data were analyzed using EVOC software and Bardin's content analysis. RESULTS: The representational field of the right to health is associated with the idea of universal law guaranteed by the Constitution and the Unified Health System (SUS), and of citizenship linked to rights and duties. CONCLUSIONS: The conceptions of right to health are understood as a condition for reaching citizenship, and citizenship as social protection.

Hypertension Prevalence, Awareness, Treatment, and Control Following China's Healthcare Reform.

BACKGROUND: In 2009, China started an impressive national healthcare system reform. One of the key components is to promote equity in access to essential healthcare services including chronic disease management. We assessed the changes in hypertension management and its equity before and after China's healthcare reform in 2009. METHODS: We used data from the 2008 and 2012 waves of the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS). The surveys were conducted in Zhejiang and Gansu provinces, containing 1,961 and 1,836 respondents aged 45 and older in 2008 and 2012 respectively. We measured the prevalence of hypertension, and proportions of respondents with hypertension aware of their conditions, receiving treatment and under effective control, separately for 2008 and 2012. We also reported these measures in provinces and rural/urban areas. RESULTS: From 2008 to 2012, the age standardized prevalence of hypertension was steady at 46.2%, but hypertension management improved substantially. Among those with hypertension, the proportion of patients aware of their conditions increased from 57.8% to 69.9%, the proportion of patients receiving treatment increased from 38.1% to 56.1%, and the proportion of patients with hypertension under effective control increased from 21.7% to 36.4%. The highest improvement was found in rural areas of the underdeveloped province, which indicated that the inequity across regions declined over time. CONCLUSIONS: Among Chinese population aged 45 and older in Zhejiang and Gansu provinces, hypertension management improved following healthcare reform. The rate of improvement was faster in rural and underdeveloped areas, possibly related to additional governmental subsidies to these areas.

Representações sociais de conselheiros de saúde acerca do direito à saúde e da cidadania / Representaciones sociales de concejales de salud sobre el derecho a la salud y a la ciudadanía / Social representations of health councilors regarding the right to health and citizenship

RESUMO Objetivo Conhecer a estrutura das representações sociais de direito à saúde e cidadania de conselheiros municipais de saúde. Método Estudo qualitativo, fundamentado nas Teorias das Representações Sociais e do Núcleo Central, realizado em oito municípios da Região Integrada de Desenvolvimento do Entorno do Distrito Federal, Brasil. A amostra intencional foi composta por conselheiros municipais de saúde. Entre junho e dezembro de 2012 aplicaram-se questionários de evocação livre, dos quais foram respondidos 68 com o termo indutor Direito à Saúde e 64 com o termo indutor Cidadania. Os dados foram analisados por meio do software EVOC e da análise de conteúdo de Bardin. Resultados O campo representacional de direito à saúde está associado à ideia de direito universal garantido pela Constituição e pelo SUS e de cidadania vinculado aos direitos e deveres. Conclusões As concepções de direito à saúde são entendidas enquanto condição para alcance da cidadania e cidadania como proteção social.

RESUMEN Objetivo Conocer la estructura de las representaciones sociales de la salud y el derecho a la ciudadanía de la salud de concejales. Estudio cualitativo basado en la teoría de las representaciones sociales y el núcleo central, realizado en los municipios de la región que rodea el Desarrollo Integrado del Distrito Federal, Brasil. Una muestra intencional fue compuesta por consejeros municipales de salud. Entre junio y diciembre de 2012 aplicaron cuestionarios de recuerdo libre, de los cuales fueron contestados 68 con el inductor del término derecho a la salud y 64 con el término ciudadanía inductor. Los datos fueron analizados utilizando el software EVOC y el análisis de contenido de Bardin. s El campo representacional derecho a la salud se asocia con la idea del derecho universal garantizado por la Constitución y el SUS y la ciudadanía vinculada a los derechos y deberes. El derecho de los conceptos de salud se entiende como condición para el logro de la ciudadanía y ciudadanía como protección social.

ABSTRACT Objective To know the structure of the social representations of right to health and citizenship of health municipal councilors. Method This is a qualitative study, based on the central nucleus theory of social representations, carried out in eight municipalities of the Integrated Region for the Development of the Surroundings of the Federal District, Brazil. The intentional sample consisted of municipal health councilors. Between June and December 2012, free recall questionnaires were used, of which 68 were answered with the inducing term health, and 64 with the inducing term citizenship. Data were analyzed using EVOC software and Bardin’s content analysis. Results The representational field of the right to health is associated with the idea of universal law guaranteed by the Constitution and the Unified Health System (SUS), and of citizenship linked to rights and duties. Conclusions The conceptions of right to health are understood as a condition for reaching citizenship, and citizenship as social protection.

The Relationship of Policymaking and Networking Characteristics among Leaders of Large Urban Health Departments.

BACKGROUND: The relationship between policy networks and policy development among local health departments (LHDs) is a growing area of interest to public health practitioners and researchers alike. In this study, we examine policy activity and ties between public health leadership across large urban health departments. METHODS: This study uses data from a national profile of local health departments as well as responses from a survey sent to three staff members (local health official, chief of policy, chief science officer) in each of 16 urban health departments in the United States. Network questions related to frequency of contact with health department personnel in other cities. Using exponential random graph models, network density and centrality were examined, as were patterns of communication among those working on several policy areas using exponential random graph models. RESULTS: All 16 LHDs were active in communicating about chronic disease as well as about use of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs (ATOD). Connectedness was highest among local health officials (density = .55), and slightly lower for chief science officers (d = .33) and chiefs of policy (d = .29). After accounting for organizational characteristics, policy homophily (i.e., when two network members match on a single characteristic) and tenure were the most significant predictors of formation of network ties. CONCLUSION: Networking across health departments has the potential for accelerating the adoption of public health policies. This study suggests similar policy interests and formation of connections among senior leadership can potentially drive greater connectedness among other staff.

Health in All Urban Policy: city services through the prism of health.

In April, 2014, the City of Richmond, California, became one of the first and only municipalities in the USA to adopt a Health in All Policies (HiAP) ordinance and strategy. HiAP is increasingly recognized as an important method for ensuring policy making outside the health sector addresses the determinants of health and social equity. A central challenge facing HiAP is how to integrate community knowledge and health equity considerations into the agendas of policymakers who have not previously considered health as their responsibility or view the value of such an approach. In Richmond, the HiAP strategy has an explicit focus on equity and guides city services from budgeting to built and social environment programs. We describe the evolution of Richmond's HiAP strategy and its content. We highlight how this urban HiAP was the result of the coproduction of science policy. Coproduction includes participatory processes where different public stakeholders, scientific experts, and government sector leaders come together to jointly generate policy goals, health equity metrics, and policy drafting and implementation strategies. We conclude with some insights for how city governments might consider HiAP as an approach to achieve "targeted universalism," or the idea that general population health goals can be achieved by targeting actions and improvements for specific vulnerable groups and places.

Tratamiento y uso de recursos en salud mental de pacientes sin patología / Treatment and use of resources in mental health of patients without pathology

Objetivo: Determinar si existen diferencias en el uso de recursos y la actividad terapéutica llevada a cabo con las personas con y sin trastorno mental diagnosticable (códigos Z según CIE-10) en los Servicios de Salud Mental. Metodología: Diseño: estudio descriptivo comparativo. Ámbito: área sanitaria urbana. Población: todos los pacientes derivados al Centro de Salud Mental (n=1187) durante un año. Variables: se han analizado la indicación clínica, el número de citas y la intervención terapéutica a lo largo de un año de seguimiento. Asimismo, se recogieron también variables sociodemográficas, clínicas y asistenciales mediante la entrevista clínica, el test GHQ-28 y una escala de expectativas, para poder completar el estudio. Resultados: Los códigos Z son dados de alta en mayor proporción, reciben un tercio de visitas a lo largo de un año, faltan a mayor número de citas y tienen una probabilidad casi 5 veces mayor de abandonar tras la primera consulta que los trastornos mentales. Los pacientes diagnosticados de trastorno mental llegan con más tratamiento pautado desde atención primaria, se les añade más tratamiento, sobre todo si habían llegado sin ello a consulta, si viven solos y en el caso de ser derivados vía normal, que los códigos Z. A los 12 meses también están tomando psicofármacos en mayor proporción. Conclusiones: La indicación de alta o seguimiento en la primera entrevista, el número de citas y los abandonos discriminan las dos poblaciones mejor que en trabajos previos. Nuestros pacientes tienen más medicación pautada en el momento de la consulta, sobre todo en el caso de los códigos Z, que en los estudios internacionales. No obstante, la intervención farmacológica con los códigos Z suele ir encaminada en su mayoría a suspender los psicofármacos (AU)

Aims: to establish the differences in the use of resorurces and treatment with the people with and without diagnosable mental (Z codes according to CIE 10) in a Community Mental Health Center. Method: Design: comparative descriptive study. Scope: urban area. Population: all patientes referred to de mental health service during a year (n=1187). Variables: clinical indication, number of consults and therapeutic intervention throughout a year of pursuit have been analyzed. Also, were also collected sociodemographic, clinical and health services utilization variables by clinical interview, the test GHQ-28 and a scale of expectations, in order to complete the study. Results: Z codes are discharged to a greater extent, receive one-third of visits over a year, missing more citations and have a nearly 5 times more likely to leave after the first consultation that mental disorders. Patients diagnosed as mental disorder come with more prescribed treatment from primary care, further treatment is added, especially if they come without it to see, if they live alone and if they are re - ferred for normal track than Z. codes At 12 months are also taking psychotropic drugs in greater proportion. Conclusions: The indication of discharge or pursuit in the first interview, the number of consults and drop-outs discriminates the two populations better than in previous works. Our patients have more medication at the moment of the consultation, mainly in the case of the Z codes, than other studies. However, the pharmacology intervention with Z codes usually goes directed in its majority to suspend the psychotropic drug (AU)

[Toulouse, an "urban figure of public health". Dealing with public local struggles against health social differences]. / Toulouse, une "figure urbaine de la santé publique". À propos de l'action publique municipale de lutte contre les inégalités sociales de santé.

When drawing up the portrait of "urban figures of public health", in 1998, Didier Fassin considered Toulouse to be one of the worthy "local experiments". Fifteen years after his precursory work, the recently developed local public policy against health social differences gives an opportunity to question ourselves about the effectiveness of such a quality then associated to the city. A cognitive analysis of the elaboration of the Toulousian health public policy meaning enables to notice that the process of health legitimization on a local scale takes the following forms. On the one hand, renaming health as a legitimate object of public policies sets it up as a common wealth. On the other hand, local public policy puts the emphasis on health education and tries to increase the standing of social appraisal coming from associative experiments and abilities of the inhabitants themselves. Finally, it calls for citizens' mobilization and solidarity in order to promote a "health democracy" able to struggle efficiently against health social differences.

[Chikungunya and urban sprawl on Reunion Island]. / Le chikungunya et l'habitat informel a La Réunion.

The proportion of unsanitary housing in French overseas departments is much higher than in mainland France. Reunion Island is no exception to this fact. Between 80 and 90% of housing in Reunion Island was built by squatters with no legal claim or deed to the property. This has resulted in uncontrolled urban sprawl with living conditions reminiscent of those in developing countries. The absence of adequate drainage systems for sewage and rain water and the lack of properly organized garbage disposal that characterizes these sprawl areas constitutes a particularly favorable breeding ground for vector-borne diseases, especially chikungunya. Thus, implementing measures to control this type of settlement and to relocate of people out of existing sprawl areas constitutes a significant tool to control this epidemiological risk. Up to now, public officials have shown a clear reluctance to intervene in sprawl areas despite good knowledge of their location. On June 26th of this year, a law containing provisions relative to the control of urban sprawl and unsanitary housing in overseas departments and territories will come into effect. This law should provide public officials with the legal basis that has up until now been lacking to take action. Persistence in the "wait-and-see" attitude could lead to condemnation by French or European courts.

Urban policy engagement with social sustainability in metro Vancouver.

This article presents an analysis of social sustainability in comparative theoretical context and as a challenge to the post-political interpretation of sustainability in policy practice at the urban and regional scales. Metro Vancouver provides a case study for improving our understanding of the meaning of social sustainability as a framework for social policy in that it is among the handful of cities around the world currently working to define and enact social sustainability in governance terms. Results of this participant research provide evidence that some cities are politically engaging alternative development pathways using the concept of social sustainability. For sustainable development to retain its promise as an alternative policy framework for cities, social sustainability must be at the forefront.