Inequalities in access to water and soap matter for the COVID-19 response in sub-Saharan Africa.

The COVID-19 pandemic has spread rapidly since the first case notification of the WHO in December 2019. Lacking an effective treatment, countries have implemented non-pharmaceutical interventions including social distancing measures and have encouraged maintaining adequate and frequent hand hygiene to slow down the disease transmission. Although access to clean water and soap is universal in high-income settings, it remains a basic need many do not have in low- and middle-income settings.We analyzed data from Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) of 16 countries in sub-Saharan Africa, using the most recent survey since 2015. Differences in the percentage of households with an observed handwashing place with water and soap were estimated by place of residence and wealth quintiles. Equiplots showed wide within-country disparities, disproportionately affecting the poorest households and rural residents, who represent the majority of the population in most of the countries.Social inequalities in access to water and soap matter for the COVID-19 response in sub-Saharan Africa. Interventions such as mass distribution of soap and ensuring access to clean water, along with other preventive strategies should be scaled up to reach the most vulnerable populations.

The determinants of handwashing behaviour among internally displaced women in two camps in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq.

BACKGROUND: Diarrhoea is one of the most common causes of mortality and morbidity among populations displaced due to conflict. Handwashing with soap has the potential to halve the burden of diarrhoeal diseases in crisis contexts. This study aimed to identify which determinants drive handwashing behaviour in post-conflict, displacement camps. METHODS: This study was conducted in two camps for internally displaced people in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. A Barrier Analysis questionnaire was used for assessing the determinants of hand washing behaviour. Participants were screened and classified as either 'doers' (those who wash their hands with soap at critical times) or 'non-doers' (those who do not wash their hands with soap at critical times). Forty-five doers and non-doers were randomly selected from each camp and asked about behavioural determinants. The Barrier Analysis standard tabulation sheet was used for the analysis. RESULTS: No differences were observed between doers and non-doers in relation to self-efficacy, action efficacy, the difficulties and benefits of handwashing, and levels of access to soap and water. In the first of the two camps, non-doers found it harder to remember to wash their hands (P = 0.045), had lower perceived vulnerability to diarrhoea (P = 0.037), lower perceived severity of diarrhoea (P = 0.020) and were aware of 'policies' which supported handwashing with soap (P = 0.037). In the second camp non-doers had lower perceived vulnerability to diarrhoea (P = 0.017). CONCLUSIONS: In these camp settings handwashing behaviour, and the factors that determine it, was relatively homogenous because of the homogeneity of the settings and the socio-demographics of population. Handwashing programmes should seek to improve the convenience and quality of handwashing facilities, create cues to trigger handwashing behaviour and increase perceived risk. We identify several ways to improve the validity of the Barrier Analysis method such as using it in combination with other more holistic qualitative tools and revising the statistical analysis.

Access to Functional Handwashing Facilities and Associated Factors among South Sudanese Refugees in Rhino Camp Settlement, Northwestern Uganda.

Background: Hand hygiene in refugee camp settlements remains an important measure against diarrhoeal infections. Refugee settings are characterised by overcrowding and inadequate access to water and hygiene facilities which favour proliferation of faecal-oral diseases. Handwashing with soap and water is therefore an effective way of preventing such diseases. Despite this knowledge, there is limited information about access to functional handwashing facilities in these settings and associated factors in Uganda. Methods: Quantitative data were collected from 312 refugee households in Rhino Camp Settlement, Northwestern Uganda, using a semistructured interviewer-administered questionnaire. A modified Poisson regression was used to obtain prevalence ratios (PRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the determinants of access to a functional handwashing facility among refugee households. All analyses were performed using STATA 14.0 statistical software. Results: Of the 312 households, 123 (39.4%) had access to a handwashing facility, but only 72 (23.1%) of households had handwashing facilities that were functional. Duration of stay in the camp exceeding 3 years (adjusted PR = 2.63; 95% CI (1.73-4.00)) and history of receiving home-based education on hand hygiene (adjusted PR = 9.44; 95% CI (1.40-63.86)) were independent predictors of access to a functional handwashing facility. Conclusion: Access to functional handwashing facilities among the refugee households was low. Our findings highlight the need for more and continued handwashing promotional programs, most especially among newly arrived refugees in the camp.

Effect of an equipment-behavior change intervention on handwashing behavior among primary school children in Kenya: the Povu Poa school pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Handwashing prevalence in schools in Kenya is low due to lack of access to water and soap and lack of drive for handwashing. Soapy water made from detergent powder is an inexpensive alternative to bar soap and disgust and social norms change can be powerful drivers of handwashing, but their effectiveness has not been assessed in school setting. In Kenyan public schools, we evaluated an equipment-behavior change intervention's effect on handwashing outcomes. We also monitored functionality of the Povu Poa prototypes to identify design improvements necessary for continued high usage in institutional settings. METHODS: The intervention included the "Povu Poa", a new type of handwashing station that dispensed foaming soap and rinse water, combined with school-wide behavior change promotion based on disgust and social norms. In this stepped-wedge cluster-randomized trial, we randomly selected 30 schools and divided them into 3 groups of 10. Following baseline data collection, we delivered the intervention sequentially (Group 1: 3-5 weeks after baseline; Group 2: 6-8 weeks; Group 3: 19-24 weeks). We observed outcomes [1] availability of handwashing materials at handwashing places, and; 2) observed handwashing behavior after toilet use among schoolchildren) at baseline and in three follow-up rounds. We compared the outcomes between schools that had received the intervention and schools that had not yet received the intervention. RESULTS: Water and soap/soapy water were available at 2% of school visits before intervention, and at 42% of school visits after intervention.. Before intervention, we observed handwashing with water after 11% of 461 toilet use events; no one was observed to wash hands with soap/soapy water. After intervention, we observed handwashing after 62% of 383 toilet use events (PR = 5.96, 95% CI = 3.02, 11.76) and handwashing with soap/soapy water after 26% of events (PR incalculable). Foaming soap dispenser caps were cracked in 31% of all observations, but were typically still functional. CONCLUSIONS: Our combined equipment-behavior intervention increased availability of handwashing materials and improved the compliance with handwashing after using the toilet, but handwashing with soap was still rare. Equipment durability must be improved for deployment in schools at scale. American Economic Association's Registry for Randomized Controlled Trials; Trial Registry Number (TRN): AEARCTR-0000662; Date of Registry: April 14, 2015.

Do Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Conditions in Primary Schools Consistently Support Schoolgirls' Menstrual Needs? A Longitudinal Study in Rural Western Kenya.

Many females lack access to water, privacy and basic sanitation-felt acutely when menstruating. Water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) conditions in schools, such as access to latrines, water, and soap, are essential for the comfort, equity, and dignity of menstruating girls. Our study was nested within a cluster randomized controlled pilot feasibility study where nurses provided menstrual items to schoolgirls. We observed the WASH conditions of 30 schools from June 2012⁻October 2013 to see if there were any changes in conditions, to compare differences between study arms and to examine agreement between observed and teacher-reported conditions. Data came from study staff observed, and school head teacher reported, WASH conditions. We developed scores for the condition of school facilities to report any changes in conditions and compare outcomes across study arms. Results demonstrated that soap availability for students increased significantly between baseline and follow-up while there was a significant decrease in the number of "acceptable" latrines. During the study follow-up period, individual WASH indicators supporting menstruating girls, such as locks on latrine doors or water availability in latrines did not significantly improve. Advances in WASH conditions for all students, and menstrual hygiene facilities for schoolgirls, needs further support, a defined budget, and regular monitoring of WASH facilities to maintain standards.

Hygiene Practices During Food Preparation in Rural Bangladesh: Opportunities to Improve the Impact of Handwashing Interventions.

This study explored the steps of food preparation, related handwashing opportunities, current practices, and community perceptions regarding foods at high-risk of contamination such as mashed foods and salads. In three rural Bangladeshi villages, we collected qualitative and observational data. Food preparation was a complex and multistep process. Food preparation was interrupted by tasks that could contaminate the preparers' hands, after which they continued food preparation without washing hands. Community members typically ate hand-mixed, uncooked mashed food and salad as accompaniments to curry and rice at meals. Hand-mixed dried foods were mostly consumed as a snack. Observers recorded handwashing during preparation of these foods. Among 24 observed caregivers, of 85 opportunities to wash hands with soap during food preparation, washing hands with soap occurred twice, both times after cutting fish, whereas washing hands with water alone was common. A simple and feasible approach is promotion of handwashing with soap upon entering and re-entering the food preparation area, and ensuring that everything needed for handwashing should be within easy reach.

Estimating the Effect of School Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Improvements on Pupil Health Outcomes.

BACKGROUND: We conducted a cluster-randomized water, sanitation, and hygiene trial in 185 schools in Nyanza province, Kenya. The trial, however, had imperfect school-level adherence at many schools. The primary goal of this study was to estimate the causal effects of school-level adherence to interventions on pupil diarrhea and soil-transmitted helminth infection. METHODS: Schools were divided into water availability groups, which were then randomized separately into either water, sanitation, and hygiene intervention arms or a control arm. School-level adherence to the intervention was defined by the number of intervention components-water, latrines, soap-that had been adequately implemented. The outcomes of interest were pupil diarrhea and soil-transmitted helminth infection. We used a weighted generalized structural nested model to calculate prevalence ratio. RESULTS: In the water-scarce group, there was evidence of a reduced prevalence of diarrhea among pupils attending schools that adhered to two or to three intervention components (prevalence ratio = 0.28, 95% confidence interval: 0.10, 0.75), compared with what the prevalence would have been had the same schools instead adhered to zero components or one. In the water-available group, there was no evidence of reduced diarrhea with better adherence. For the soil-transmitted helminth infection and intensity outcomes, we often observed point estimates in the preventive direction with increasing intervention adherence, but primarily among girls, and the confidence intervals were often very wide. CONCLUSIONS: Our instrumental variable point estimates sometimes suggested protective effects with increased water, sanitation, and hygiene intervention adherence, although many of the estimates were imprecise.

Household-level risk factors for influenza among young children in Dhaka, Bangladesh: a case-control study.

OBJECTIVES: To identify household-level factors associated with influenza among young children in a crowded community in Dhaka, Bangladesh. METHODS: We conducted a case-control study using existing active surveillance for respiratory illness. Cases were children aged 12-59 months with laboratory-confirmed influenza. Controls were children frequency-matched by age group with no respiratory illness in the prior 6 months. We interviewed caregivers and observed household handwashing behaviour. Soap consumption was estimated by summing weight differences of three bars of soap sequentially left in each household. We measured concentrations of airborne particulate matter <2.5 µg in diameter (PM2.5) in a subset of households. We used logistic regression to estimate adjusted odds ratios (aOR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS: We enrolled 145 cases and 341 controls between March 2009 and April 2010. Case and control household members were observed to wash hands with similar frequency during a 5-h period (mean, 0.64 events vs. 0.63, P = 0.87), and similar daily soap consumption per capita (mean 2.92 grams vs. 2.93, P = 0.92). Case households were more likely than controls to have crowded (≥4 persons) sleeping areas (aOR = 1.67, CI: 1.06-2.63) and cross-ventilated cooking spaces (aOR = 1.75, CI: 1.16-2.63). Case and control households had similar median 24-h geometric mean PM2.5 concentrations in the cooking (69.2 vs. 69.6 µg/m(3), P = 0.45) and sleeping (65.4 vs. 67.4 µg/m(3), P = 0.19) spaces. CONCLUSIONS: Handwashing with soap was practiced infrequently and was not associated with paediatric influenza in this community. Interventions aimed at crowded households may reduce influenza incidence in young children.

Changing handwashing behaviour in southern Ethiopia: a longitudinal study on infrastructural and commitment interventions.

Improved hand hygiene efficiently prevents the major killers of children under the age of five years in Ethiopia and globally, namely diarrhoeal and respiratory diseases. Effective handwashing interventions are thus in great demand. Evidence- and theory-based interventions, especially when matched to the target population's needs, are expected to perform better than common practice. To test this hypothesis, we selected two interventions drawing on a baseline questionnaire-study that applied the RANAS (Risk, Attitudes, Norms, Abilities, Self-regulation) approach and focused on the primary caregivers of households in four rural, water-scarce kebeles (smallest administrative units of Ethiopia) in southern Ethiopia (N = 462). The two interventions were tested in combination with a standard education intervention in a quasi-experiment, as follows: kebele 1, education intervention, namely an f-diagram exercise, (n = 23); kebele 2, education intervention and public-commitment (n = 122); kebele 3, education intervention and tippy-tap-promotion (i.e. handwashing-station-promotion; n = 150); kebele 4, education intervention, public-commitment and tippy-tap-promotion (n = 113). In kebeles 3 and 4, nearly 100% of the households followed the promotion and invested material and time to construct for themselves a tippy-tap. Three months after intervention termination, the tippy-taps were in use with water and soap being present in up to 83% of the households (kebele 4). Pre-post data analysis on self-reported handwashing revealed that the population-tailored interventions, and especially the tippy-tap-promotion, performed better than the standard education intervention. Tendencies in observed behaviour and a recently developed implicit self-measure pointed to similar results. Changing people's hand hygiene is known to be a challenging task, especially in a water-scarce environment. The present project suggests not only to apply theory and evidence to improve handwashing interventions' effectiveness, but also emphasizes the relevance of tailoring interventions to the target population.

Associations between presence of handwashing stations and soap in the home and diarrhoea and respiratory illness, in children less than five years old in rural western Kenya.

OBJECTIVE: We tested whether soap presence in the home or a designated handwashing station was associated with diarrhoea and respiratory illness in Kenya. METHODS: In April 2009, we observed presence of a handwashing station and soap in households participating in a longitudinal health surveillance system in rural Kenya. Diarrhoea and acute respiratory illness (ARI) in children < 5 years old were identified using parent-reported syndromic surveillance collected January-April 2009. We used multivariate generalised linear regression to estimate differences in prevalence of illness between households with and without the presence of soap in the home and a handwashing station. RESULTS: Among 2547 children, prevalence of diarrhoea and ARI was 2.3 and 11.4 days per 100 child-days, respectively. Soap was observed in 97% of households. Children in households with soap had 1.3 fewer days of diarrhoea/100 child-days (95% CI -2.6, -0.1) than children in households without soap. ARI prevalence was not associated with presence of soap. A handwashing station was identified in 1.4% of households and was not associated with a difference in diarrhoea or ARI prevalence. CONCLUSIONS: Soap presence in the home was significantly associated with reduced diarrhoea, but not ARI, in children in rural western Kenya. Whereas most households had soap in the home, almost none had a designated handwashing station, which may prevent handwashing at key times of hand contamination.

Hand hygiene behavior among urban slum children and their care takers in Odisha, India.

OBJECTIVE: To study the knowledge and practice of hand washing among mothers and children of shikharchandi slum of Bhubaneswar, Odisha and to recommend possible measures to improve the current practices. METHODOLOGY: Present cross-sectional study was carried out in the Shikharchandi slum located in the Bhubaneswar city of Orissa state in India. 150 women and 80 children were interviewed. Children questionnaire were prepared to suit to their age and according to local context. Components of sanitation like food handling and hand washing were covered in this questionnaire. RESULTS: Hand washing before preparing food is being practiced by 85% of women. Of all women interviewed, 77% wash hands before serving food. Only 15% children said soap was available in their school to wash hands. Out of total children interviewed, 76% told that their teachers tell about sanitation and hand washing in the class. Only 5% children told they were consulted by doctor/health worker during last 3 months. As many as 81% children told that they wash their hands before taking food and 19% children said they take their food without washing hands. Though most of the children told that they wash hands before taking food, but only 17.5% told that they use soap for hand washing. Only 29% children told that their teachers check hand washing in school. When asked about critical timing of hand washing, 44% children told about at least two critical timings and 56% were unaware about the critical timings of hand washing. CONCLUSION: Inadequate knowledge on this among our study participant is a point of concern. Systematic integration of health and hygiene education in schools through curricular modifications could be an appropriate strategy.

[Infrastructure and adherence to hand hygiene: challenges to patient safety]. / Infraestrutura e adesão à higienização das mãos: desafios à segurança do paciente.

Considering the importance of hands in the chain of transmission of microorganisms, this observational research investigated the material infrastructure and compliance of hand hygiene in an intensive care unit in the south of Brazil in 2010. The data was collected by direct non-participant observation and through the use of self-administered questionnaires to be completed by the 39 participants, which was analyzed with the assistance of the chi2 Test, descriptive statistics and quantitative discourse analysis. Although health professionals overestimate compliance rates, recognize the practice as relevant to the prevention of infection and refer there are no impeding factors, of the 1,277 opportunities observed, compliance was 26% and significantly lower before patient contact and the use of aseptic procedures than after patient contact: infrastructure was shown to be deficient. The results indicate risk to patient safety, and thus, the planning of corrective actions to promote hand washing is relevant.

Infraestrutura e adesão à higienização das mãos: desafios à segurança do paciente / Infrastructure and adherence to hand hygiene: challenges to patient safety / Infraestructura y adhesión a la higienización de las manos: desafíos a la seguridad del paciente

Considerando a importância das mãos na cadeia de transmissão de microrganismos, esta pesquisa observacional investigou a infraestrutura material e a adesão à higienização das mãos em unidade de terapia intensiva do sul do Brasil, em 2010. Os dados foram coletados por observação direta não participante e emprego de instrumento autoaplicável a 39 profissionais, analisados com auxílio de Teste do χ², estatística descritiva e análise de discurso quantitativa. Embora os profissionais superestimem a adesão, reconheçam a prática como relevante para a prevenção de infecções e refiram não haver fatores de impedimento, entre 1277 oportunidades observadas, a adesão foi de 28,6%, e significativamente menor antes do contato e dos procedimentos assépticos do que após o contato com o paciente. A infraestrutura apresentou-se deficiente em funcionalidade. Os resultados implicam risco para a segurança dos pacientes, sendo relevante o planejamento de ações corretivas e que promovam essa prática.

Considering the importance of hands in the chain of transmission of microorganisms, this observational research investigated the material infrastructure and compliance of hand hygiene in an intensive care unit in the south of Brazil, in 2010. The data was collected by direct non-participant observation and through the use of self-administered questionnaires to be completed by the 39 participants, which was analyzed with the assistance of the χ² Test, descriptive statistics and quantitative discourse analysis. Although health professionals overestimate compliance rates, recognize the practice as relevant to the prevention of infection and refer there are no impeding factors, of the 1,277 opportunities observed, compliance was 26% and significantly lower before patient contact and the use of aseptic procedures than after patient contact: infrastructure was shown to be deficient. The results indicate risk to patient safety, and, thus, the planning of corrective actions to promote hand washing is relevant.

Con base en la importancia de las manos en la cadena de transmisión de microorganismos, esta investigación observacional tuvo el objetivo de observar la infraestructura material y la adhesión a la higienización de las manos en unidad de terapia intensiva del sur de Brasil, en 2010. Los datos fueron recogidos por la observación directa no participante y empleo de instrumento autoaplicable a 39 participantes, analizados con ayuda del Test de χ², estadística descriptiva y análisis de discurso cuantitativo. A pesar de que los profesionales sobrestimen la adhesión, reconocen la práctica como relevante para la prevención de infecciones y refieren no haber factores de impedimento. Entre 1277 oportunidades observadas, la adhesión fue del 28,6% y significativamente menor antes del contacto y procedimientos asépticos que después del contacto con el paciente; la infraestructura se ha presentado deficiente en funcionalidad. Los resultados revelan riesgo para la seguridad de los pacientes siendo relevante el planeamiento de acciones correctivas y que promuevan esa práctica.

School nurse inspections improve handwashing supplies.

BACKGROUND: Handwashing in the school setting is important for infectious disease control, yet maintaining adequate handwashing supplies is often made difficult by lack of funds, limited staff time, and student vandalism. This study measured the availability of handwashing supplies for students in New Mexico public schools and determined the impact of scheduled school nurse inspections on the availability of handwashing supplies. METHODS: Participating school districts in New Mexico were matched by size and randomized into intervention and control groups. Baseline inspections were conducted in November 2008 followed by 2 subsequent bimonthly inspections. For each student bathroom, the presence or absence of soap and either paper towels or hand dryers was indicated on an inspection checklist. The intervention group reported findings to the New Mexico Department of Health (NMDOH) and to school administrative and custodial staff requesting that any identified problems be addressed. The control group reported inspection findings to the NMDOH only. Descriptive analyses were conducted to determine the proportion of bathrooms with soap and either paper towels or hand dryers. Comparisons were made between the intervention schools and the control schools at baseline and during the intervention period. RESULTS: The intervention group had significantly higher probability of bathrooms being supplied with soap (p < .05) and paper towels/hand dryers (p < .02) during the intervention period. CONCLUSIONS: Regularly scheduled school nurse inspections of hand hygiene supplies, with reporting to appropriate school officials, can improve the availability of handwashing supplies for students.

Hand hygiene: product preference and compliance.

BACKGROUND: Hospitals are trying to improve patient hand hygiene by providing handwashing products at the bedside. Patients' compliance with handwashing depends on their satisfaction with hygiene products but no one has looked at which products patients prefer. Research on this will help hospitals target hand hygiene more appropriately and effectively. AIM: To explore patient satisfaction with hand hygiene products and identify those that are most popular. METHOD: Two hundred patients were given five hand hygiene products to evaluate. These represent the interventions most widely used by patients in hospitals: alcohol foams, alcohol wipes, wet cloths with antiseptic solutions, bowls of soapy water and mobile sinks. RESULTS: Alcohol foam achieved the highest mean satisfaction score and was significantly more popular than the other products. CONCLUSION: Alcohol foam was the most popular choice regardless of age, sex, dexterity, mobility and religion.

Enhancing a safe water intervention with student-created visual aids to promote handwashing behavior in Kenyan primary schools.

The Nyando Integrated Child Health Education (NICHE) project was a collaborative effort by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and local partners to assess the effectiveness of multiple interventions for improving child survival in western Kenya. To increase handwashing in schools, NICHE trained teachers and installed handwashing stations with treated water and soap in 51 primary schools. This cluster-randomized trial evaluated an additional educational strategy (a poster contest themed, "Handwashing with Soap") to improve handwashing behavior in 23 NICHE primary schools. Pupils were engaged in the poster development. Pupil handwashing behavior was observed unobtrusively at baseline and after four months. Intervention schools displayed a significant increase in the number of handwashing stations and proportion of teacher-supervised stations over the study period. No significant between-group differences of intervention in handwashing frequency, soap availability, or visibility of handwashing stations was observed. Despite finding a limited effect beyond the NICHE intervention, the trial appeared to promote sustainability across some measures.

Bathing and cleaning practices in the camp of Jalozai Pakistan, for internally displaced people, based on Sphere Standards and Indicators.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the bathing and cleaning practice, based on Sphere Standards and Indicators, of internally displaced people in the camp of Jalozai, Pakistan. METHODS: This descriptive cross sectional survey was done in displaced population of Jalozai camp Nowshera from February to September 2010. Systematic Random Sampling was done (10% of Phase II Population). Study unit was a single family residing in the camp. A customized structured questionnaire was administered to households and information as recorded by the researchers. Informed consent and confidentiality was maintained while interviewing the household. RESULTS: Although 97% (n=111) families were using soap for bathing but surprisingly none of them were on required Sphere Standards. Similarly 93% (n=107) were using laundry soaps and 49% (n=56) were using washing powder but again were not fulfilling the standards. It was discovered based on our survey that 64% (n=71) displaced people were not using anything for cleaning their children and none were using washable nappies. It was also observed that 99% (n=114) were using toothpastes and other local means for dental hygiene. Less than 10 toothpastes/year were provided to 79% families while 21% (n=24) were not provided at all. CONCLUSION: Our survey population was not on required SPHERE standards for sufficient bathing and laundry soap and they had no access to sufficient amount of toothbrush and toothpaste. Children were not provided with washable nappies or diapers.

Associations among handwashing indicators, wealth, and symptoms of childhood respiratory illness in urban Bangladesh.

OBJECTIVES: To explore the relationship of easy to collect handwashing indicators with socioeconomic status and reported respiratory disease among children <5 years of age. METHODS: We added several handwashing indicators to a population-based, cross-sectional study of respiratory illness in Dhaka, Bangladesh. We constructed a wealth index using 12 household characteristics analysed with principal component analysis to assess socioeconomic status. RESULTS: Of 6970 households, 92% had a bar of body soap, 41% had a place with water to wash hands inside the house, and 40% had soap present at the most convenient place to wash hands. Handwashing indicators were more common among households with higher socioeconomic status. Within each wealth quintile a place to wash hands within the household was strongly associated with the presence of soap at the handwashing location (odds ratios 13-70). In general estimated equation models that controlled for socioeconomic status, the presence of a place inside the house with water to wash hands was the only handwashing indicator significantly associated with a child in the household who reported cough or difficulty breathing in the preceding 7 days (adjusted odds ratio 0.95, 95% confidence interval 0.93-0.98, P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Handwashing indicators were strongly influenced by socio-economic status and so would not be an independent measure of handwashing behaviour. Handwashing promotion efforts in urban Dhaka that include specific efforts to provide handwashing facilities inside the house are more likely to improve handwashing behaviour than interventions that ignore this component.

Skin reactions related to hand hygiene and selection of hand hygiene products.

BACKGROUND: In October 2004, The World Health Organization (WHO) launched the World Alliance for Patient Safety. Within the alliance, the first priority of the Global Patient Safety Challenge is to reduce health care-associated infection. A key action within the challenge is to promote hand hygiene in health care globally as well as at the country level through the campaign "Clean Care is Safer Care." As a result, the WHO is developing Guidelines on Hand Hygiene in Health Care, designed to be applicable throughout the world. METHODS: This paper summarizes one component of the global WHO guidelines related to the impact of hand hygiene on the skin of health care personnel, including a discussion of types of skin reactions associated with hand hygiene, methods to reduce adverse reactions, and factors to consider when selecting hand hygiene products. RESULTS: Health care professionals have a higher prevalence of skin irritation than seen in the general population because of the necessity for frequent hand hygiene during patient care. CONCLUSION: Ways to minimize adverse effects of hand hygiene include selecting less irritating products, using skin moisturizers, and modifying certain hand hygiene practices such as unnecessary washing. Institutions need to consider several factors when selecting hand hygiene products: dermal tolerance and aesthetic preferences of users as well as practical considerations such as convenience, storage, and costs.