Construction of logic gate computation for the assay of the nerve agent sarin based on an AChE-based dual-channel sensing system.

Nerve agents have posed a huge threat to national and human security, and their sensitive detection is crucial. Herein, based on the oxidation of Ce4+ and the aggregation-induced emission (AIE) of glutathione-protected gold nanoclusters (GSH-Au NCs), a cascade reaction was designed to prepare oxidized 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (oxTMB) and GSH-Au NCs crosslinked by Ce3+ (Ce3+-GSH-Au NCs). oxTMB had a broad UV-visible absorption range (500-700 nm) and was capable of quenching the fluorescence of Ce3+-GSH-Au NCs at 590 nm through the internal filtration effect (IFE). Thiocholine (TCh), the hydrolysis product of acetylthiocholine chloride (ATCl) catalyzed by acetylcholinesterase (AChE), reduced oxTMB completely, resulting in a decrease in the absorption of oxTMB and the recovery of IFE-quenched fluorescence of Ce3+-GSH-Au NCs. Nerve agent sarin (GB) hindered the production of TCh and the reduction of oxTMB by inhibiting the AChE activity, leading to the fluorescence of Ce3+-GSH-Au NCs being quenched again. The dual-output sensing system (AChE + ATCl + oxTMB + Ce3+-GSH-Au NCs) exhibited a low limit of detection to GB (2.46 nM for colorimetry and 1.18 nM for fluorimetry) and excellent selectivity toward common interferences being unable to inhibit AChE. Moreover, the intelligent logic gate constructed based on the sensing system showed promising applications in the field of smart sensing of nerve agents.

Cholesterol Oxime Olesoxime Assessed as a Potential Ligand of Human Cholinesterases.

Olesoxime, a cholesterol derivative with an oxime group, possesses the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier, and has demonstrated excellent safety and tolerability properties in clinical research. These characteristics indicate it may serve as a centrally active ligand of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), whose disruption of activity with organophosphate compounds (OP) leads to uncontrolled excitation and potentially life-threatening symptoms. To evaluate olesoxime as a binding ligand and reactivator of human AChE and BChE, we conducted in vitro kinetic studies with the active metabolite of insecticide parathion, paraoxon, and the warfare nerve agents sarin, cyclosarin, tabun, and VX. Our results showed that both enzymes possessed a binding affinity for olesoxime in the mid-micromolar range, higher than the antidotes in use (i.e., 2-PAM, HI-6, etc.). While olesoxime showed a weak ability to reactivate AChE, cyclosarin-inhibited BChE was reactivated with an overall reactivation rate constant comparable to that of standard oxime HI-6. Moreover, in combination with the oxime 2-PAM, the reactivation maximum increased by 10-30% for cyclosarin- and sarin-inhibited BChE. Molecular modeling revealed productive interactions between olesoxime and BChE, highlighting olesoxime as a potentially BChE-targeted therapy. Moreover, it might be added to OP poisoning treatment to increase the efficacy of BChE reactivation, and its cholesterol scaffold could provide a basis for the development of novel oxime antidotes.

Pnictogen bond-driven control of the molecular interaction between organophosphorus and acetylcholinesterase enzyme.

This study addresses a comprehensive assessment of the interaction between chemical warfare agents (CWA) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) systems, focus on the intriguing pnictogen-bond interaction (PnB). Utilizing the crystallographic data from the Protein Data Bank pertaining to the AChE-CWA complex involving Sarin (GB), Cyclosarin (GF), 2-[fluoro(methyl)phosphoryl]oxy-1,1-dimethylcyclopentane (GP) and venomous agent X (VX) agents, the CWA is systematically displaced by increments of 0.1 Å along the PO bond axis, extending its distance by 4 Å from the original position. The AIM analysis was carried out and consistently revealed the presence of a significant interaction along the PO bond. Investigating the intrinsic nature of the PnB, the NBO and the EDA analysis unearthed the contribution of orbital factors to the overall energy of the system. Strikingly, this observation challenges the conventional σ-hole explanation commonly associated with such interactions. This finding adds a layer of complexity to understanding of PnB, encouraging further exploration into the underlying mechanisms governing these intriguing chemical phenomena.

Molecular docking and toxicity studies of nerve agents against acetylcholinesterase (AChE).

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is a cholinergic enzyme that plays an essential role in the autonomic nervous system. This enzyme is often the target of many nerve agents. When this enzyme is inhibited, its function to hydrolyze acetylcholine is stopped, accumulating the acetylcholine in the tissue and causing prolonged stimulation. Some of the significant nerve agents include sarin (GB), soman (GD), tabun (GA), and venomous agent (VX). In order to determine which compound is the most stable and has the best affinity, the nerve agent venomous agent (VX), sarin (GB), soman (GD), and tabun (GA) are docked to the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) enzyme. After that, toxicity tests will be performed on 17 targets for the compound that was chosen. Autodock Vina 1.2.0 is the software used for the docking procedure. should use the Pymol program version 2.5.4 for analysis and the Ligplot software version 2.2 for visualization of the docking findings. The 'Tox Prediction' algorithm from Insilico was used to determine the toxicity of various substances. Based on the results of molecular docking, the free binding energy of Donepezil, sarin (GB), soman (GD), tabun (GA), and venomous agent (VX) in kcal/mol are -12,3, -4.8, -6.0, -5,1, and -6.3 respectively. Finally, four ligands bind strongly to the receptor Donepezil at RMSD 0.327 Å, and the venomous agent (VX) compound binds the most strongly compared to the other test ligands. Furthermore, in the toxicity test of Compound VX, which exhibits neurotoxic activity, no toxic activity was observed on specific organs and targets.

Experimental Study of the Adsorption and Decomposition of Sarin on Dry Copper(II) Oxide.

Organophosphonates were originally developed as insecticides but were quickly identified as highly toxic acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, leading to their exploitation as chemical warfare agents (CWA). To develop next generation filtration technologies, there must be a fundamental understanding of the molecular interactions occurring with toxic chemicals, such as CWAs. In this paper, we investigate the interaction between dry CuO nanoparticles and sarin (GB), using infrared (IR) spectroscopy in an effort to build an atomic understanding. We show sarin strongly interacts with CuO and then quickly degrades, primarily through the cleavage of the P-F bond, creating a bridging species on the CuO surface with the assistance of lattice oxygen. Upon heating, the decomposition product isopropyl methyl phosphonic acid (IMPA) does not continue to decompose but desorbs from the surface. These observations are further elaborated through theoretical models of sarin on dry CuO (111).

Detection of Chemical Warfare Agents with a Miniaturized High-Performance Drift Tube Ion Mobility Spectrometer Using High-Energetic Photons for Ionization.

A growing demand for low-cost gas sensors capable of detecting the smallest amounts of highly toxic substances in air, including chemical warfare agents (CWAs) and toxic industrial chemicals (TICs), has emerged in recent years. Ion mobility spectrometers (IMS) are particularly suitable for this application due to their high sensitivity and fast response times. In view of the preferred mobile use of such devices, miniaturized ion drift tubes are required as the core of IMS-based lightweight, low-cost, hand-held gas detectors. Thus, we evaluate the suitability of a miniaturized ion mobility spectrometer featuring an ion drift tube length of just 40 mm and a high resolving power of Rp = 60 for the detection of various CWAs, such as nerve agents sarin (GB), tabun (GA), soman (GD), and cyclosarin (GF), as well as the blister agent sulfur mustard (HD), the blood agent hydrogen cyanide (AC) and the choking agent chlorine (CL). We report on the limits of detection reaching minimum concentration levels of, for instance, 29 pptv for sarin (GB) within an averaging time of only 1 s. Furthermore, we investigate the effects of precursors, simulants, and other common interfering substances on false positive alarms.

Fast and Selective Detection of Trace Chemical Warfare Agents Enabled by an ESIPT-Based Fluorescent Film Sensor.

Reliable detection of airborne chemical warfare agents (CWAs) at the site and in real-time remains a challenge due to the rarity of miniaturized analytical tools. Herein, an o-carborane-functionalized benzothiazole derivative (PCBO) with excited-state intramolecular proton transfer (ESIPT) and AIE characteristics was synthesized. The PCBO-based film sensor showed a highly sensitive response to representative simulants of CWAs, and detection limits were found to be 1.0 mg·m-3 for triphosgene, 6.0 mg·m-3 for chloroethyl ethyl sulfide, and 0.2 mg·m-3 for diethyl chlorophosphite. Moreover, the sensor showed great reusability (>100 cycles) and unprecedented response speed (<0.5 s). The excellent sensing performance was ascribed to the microenvironmental sensitivity of the sensing fluorophore, the porous adlayer structure of the film, and the specific binding of the fluorophore to the analytes. Furthermore, discrimination and identification of the examined CWA simulants were realized via the introduction of another fluorophore (HCBO)-based film. Importantly, a portable fluorescent CWA detector was built with the sensor as the key component, and its applicability was demonstrated by the successful detection of a typical CWA sample (Sarin). The present study indicates that fluorescent film sensors could satisfy reliable onsite and real-time detection of harmful chemicals.

Halogen substituents enhance oxime nucleophilicity for reactivation of cholinesterases inhibited by nerve agents.

The fluorinated bis-pyridinium oximes were designed and synthesized with the aim of increasing their nucleophilicity and potential to reactivate phosphorylated human recombinant acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and human purified plasmatic butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) in relation to chlorinated and non-halogenated oxime analogues. Compared to non-halogenated oximes, halogenated oximes showed lower pKa of the oxime group (fluorinated < chlorinated < non-halogenated) along with higher level of oximate anion formation at the physiological pH, and had a higher binding affinity of both AChE and BChE. The stability tests showed that the fluorinated oximes were stable in water, while in buffered environment di-fluorinated oximes were prone to rapid degradation, which was reflected in their lower reactivation ability. Mono-fluorinated oximes showed comparable reactivation to non-halogenated (except asoxime) and mono-chlorinated oximes in case of AChE inhibited by sarin, cyclosarin, VX, and tabun, but were less efficient than di-chlorinated ones. The same trend was observed in the reactivation of inhibited BChE. The advantage of halogen substituents in the stabilization of oxime in a position optimal for in-line nucleophilic attack were confirmed by extensive molecular modelling of pre-reactivation complexes between the analogue oximes and phosphorylated AChE and BChE. Halogen substitution was shown to provide oximes with additional beneficial properties, e.g., fluorinated oximes gained antioxidative capacity, and moreover, halogens themselves did not increase cytotoxicity of oximes. Finally, the in vivo administration of highly efficient reactivator and the most promising analogue, 3,5-di-chloro-bispyridinium oxime with trimethylene linker, provided significant protection of mice exposed to sarin and cyclosarin.

Substrate Analogues for the Enzyme-Catalyzed Detoxification of the Organophosphate Nerve Agents-Sarin, Soman, and Cyclosarin.

The G-type nerve agents, sarin (GB), soman (GD), and cyclosarin (GF), are among the most toxic compounds known. Much progress has been made in evolving the enzyme phosphotriesterase (PTE) from Pseudomonas diminuta for the decontamination of the G-agents; however, the extreme toxicity of the G-agents makes the use of substrate analogues necessary. Typical analogues utilize a chromogenic leaving group to facilitate high-throughput screening, and substitution of an O-methyl for the P-methyl group found in the G-agents, in an effort to reduce toxicity. Till date, there has been no systematic evaluation of the effects of these substitutions on catalytic activity, and the presumed reduction in toxicity has not been tested. A series of 21 G-agent analogues, including all combinations of O-methyl, p-nitrophenyl, and thiophosphate substitutions, have been synthesized and evaluated for their ability to unveil the stereoselectivity and catalytic activity of PTE variants against the authentic G-type nerve agents. The potential toxicity of these analogues was evaluated by measuring the rate of inactivation of acetylcholinesterase (AChE). All of the substitutions reduced inactivation of AChE by more than 100-fold, with the most effective being the thiophosphate analogues, which reduced the rate of inactivation by about 4-5 orders of magnitude. The analogues were found to reliably predict changes in catalytic activity and stereoselectivity of the PTE variants and led to the identification of the BHR-30 variant, which has no apparent stereoselectivity against GD and a kcat/Km of 1.4 × 106, making it the most efficient enzyme for GD decontamination reported till date.

Analysis of Organophosphorus-Based Nerve Agent Degradation Products by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS): Current Derivatization Reactions in the Analytical Chemist's Toolbox.

The field of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) in the analysis of chemical warfare agents (CWAs), specifically those involving the organophosphorus-based nerve agents (OPNAs), is a continually evolving and dynamic area of research. The ever-present interest in this field within analytical chemistry is driven by the constant threat posed by these lethal CWAs, highlighted by their use during the Tokyo subway attack in 1995, their deliberate use on civilians in Syria in 2013, and their use in the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal in Great Britain in 2018 and Alexei Navalny in 2020. These events coupled with their potential for mass destruction only serve to stress the importance of developing methods for their rapid and unambiguous detection. Although the direct detection of OPNAs is possible by GC-MS, in most instances, the analytical chemist must rely on the detection of the products arising from their degradation. To this end, derivatization reactions mainly in the form of silylations and alkylations employing a vast array of reagents have played a pivotal role in the efficient detection of these products that can be used retrospectively to identify the original OPNA.

UiO-66-NH2 and Zeolite-Templated Carbon Composites for the Degradation and Adsorption of Nerve Agents.

Composites of metal-organic frameworks and carbon materials have been suggested to be effective materials for the decomposition of chemical warfare agents. In this study, we synthesized UiO-66-NH2/zeolite-templated carbon (ZTC) composites for the adsorption and decomposition of the nerve agents sarin and soman. UiO-66-NH2/ZTC composites with good dispersion were prepared via a solvothermal method. Characterization studies showed that the composites had higher specific surface areas than pristine UiO-66-NH2, with broad pore size distributions centered at 1-2 nm. Owing to their porous nature, the UiO-66-NH2/ZTC composites could adsorb more water at 80% relative humidity. Among the UiO-66-NH2/ZTC composites, U0.8Z0.2 showed the best degradation performance. Characterization and gas adsorption studies revealed that beta-ZTC in U0.8Z0.2 provided additional adsorption and degradation sites for nerve agents. Among the investigated materials, including the pristine materials, U0.8Z0.2 also exhibited the best protection performance against the nerve agents. These results demonstrate that U0.8Z0.2 has the optimal composition for exploiting the degradation performance of pristine UiO-66-NH2 and the adsorption performance of pristine beta-ZTC.

A Thermophilic Bacterial Esterase for Scavenging Nerve Agents: A Kinetic, Biophysical and Structural Study.

Organophosphorous nerve agents (OPNA) pose an actual and major threat for both military and civilians alike, as an upsurge in their use has been observed in the recent years. Currently available treatments mitigate the effect of the nerve agents, and could be vastly improved by means of scavengers of the nerve agents. Consequently, efforts have been made over the years into investigating enzymes, also known as bioscavengers, which have the potential either to trap or hydrolyze these toxic compounds. We investigated the previously described esterase 2 from Thermogutta terrifontis (TtEst2) as a potential bioscavenger of nerve agents. As such, we assessed its potential against G-agents (tabun, sarin, and cyclosarin), VX, as well as the pesticide paraoxon. We report that TtEst2 is a good bioscavenger of paraoxon and G-agents, but is rather slow at scavenging VX. X-ray crystallography studies showed that TtEst2 forms an irreversible complex with the aforementioned agents, and allowed the identification of amino-acids, whose mutagenesis could lead to better scavenging properties for VX. In conjunction with its cheap production and purification processes, as well as a robust structural backbone, further engineering of TtEst2 could lead to a stopgap bioscavenger useful for in corpo scavenging or skin decontamination.

Molecular Modeling Studies on the Multistep Reactivation Process of Organophosphate-Inhibited Acetylcholinesterase and Butyrylcholinesterase.

Poisoning with organophosphorus compounds used as pesticides or misused as chemical weapons remains a serious threat to human health and life. Their toxic effects result from irreversible blockade of the enzymes acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase, which causes overstimulation of the cholinergic system and often leads to serious injury or death. Treatment of organophosphorus poisoning involves, among other strategies, the administration of oxime compounds. Oximes reactivate cholinesterases by breaking the covalent bond between the serine residue from the enzyme active site and the phosphorus atom of the organophosphorus compound. Although the general mechanism of reactivation has been known for years, the exact molecular aspects determining the efficiency and selectivity of individual oximes are still not clear. This hinders the development of new active compounds. In our research, using relatively simple and widely available molecular docking methods, we investigated the reactivation of acetyl- and butyrylcholinesterase blocked by sarin and tabun. For the selected oximes, their binding modes at each step of the reactivation process were identified. Amino acids essential for effective reactivation and those responsible for the selectivity of individual oximes against inhibited acetyl- and butyrylcholinesterase were identified. This research broadens the knowledge about cholinesterase reactivation and demonstrates the usefulness of molecular docking in the study of this process. The presented observations and methods can be used in the future to support the search for new effective reactivators.

Degradation of Fatal Toxic Nerve Agents on Dry TiO2.

Despite a recent dramatically increased risk of using chemical warfare agents in chemical attacks and assassinations, fundamental interactions of toxic chemicals with other materials are poorly understood, and micromechanisms of their chemical degradation are yet to be established. This represents an outstanding challenge in both fundamental science and practical applications in combat against chemical weapons. One of the most versatile and multifunctional oxides, TiO2, has been suggested as a promising material to quickly adsorb and effectively destroy toxins. In this paper, we explore how sarin (also known as GB) adsorbs and decomposes on dry nanoparticles of TiO2 anatase and rutile phases. We found that both anatase and rutile readily adsorb sarin gas molecules because of a strong electrostatic attraction between the phosphoryl oxygen and surface titanium atoms. The sarin decomposition most likely proceeds via a propene elimination; however, the reaction is exothermic on the rutile (110) surface and endothermic on the anatase (101) surface. High energy barriers suggest that sarin would hardly decompose on pristine dry surfaces of TiO2, and degradation reactions can be triggered by defects or contaminants under realistic operational conditions.

Biological Distribution and Metabolic Profiles of Carbon-11 and Fluorine-18 Tracers of VX- and Sarin-Analogs in Sprague-Dawley Rats.

Organophosphorus esters (OPs) were originally developed as pesticides but were repurposed as easily manufactured, inexpensive, and highly toxic chemical warfare agents. Acute OP toxicity is primarily due to inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), an enzyme in the central and peripheral nervous system. OP inhibition of AChE can be reversed using oxime reactivators but many show poor CNS penetration, indicating a need for new clinically viable reactivators. However, challenges exist on how to best measure restored AChE activity in vivo and assess the reactivating agent efficacy. This work reports the development of molecular imaging tools using radiolabeled OP analog tracers that are less toxic to handle in the laboratory, yet inhibit AChE in a similar fashion to the actual OPs. Carbon-11 and fluorine-18 radiolabeled analog tracers of VX and sarin OP agents were prepared. Following intravenous injection in normal Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 3-4/tracer), the tracers were evaluated and compared using noninvasive microPET/CT imaging, biodistribution assay, and arterial blood analyses. All showed rapid uptake and stable retention in brain, heart, liver, and kidney tissues determined by imaging and biodistribution. Lung uptake of the sarin analog tracers was elevated, 2-fold and 4-fold higher uptake at 5 and 30 min, respectively, compared to that for the VX analog tracers. All tracers rapidly bound to red blood cells (RBC) and blood proteins as measured in the biodistribution and arterial blood samples. Analysis of the plasma soluble activity (nonprotein/cell bound activity) showed only 1-6% parent tracer and 88-95% of the activity in the combined solid fractions (RBC and protein bound) as early as 0.5 min post injection. Multivariate analysis of tracer production yield, molar activity, brain uptake, brain area under the curve over 0-15 min, and the amount of parent tracer in the plasma at 5 min revealed the [18F]VX analog tracer had the most favorable values for each metric. This tracer was considered the more optimal tracer relative to the other tracers studied and suitable for future in vivo OP exposure and reactivation studies.

Sensitive Untargeted Screening of Nerve Agents and Their Degradation Products Using Liquid Chromatography-High Resolution Mass Spectrometry.

Nerve agents (NAs) are notorious chemical warfare agents that pose a serious threat to national security and public health. The total number of theoretical chemicals of NAs and their degradation products (DPs) exceeds 410 000, according to 1.A.01-1.A.03 in the Schedules of Chemicals of the Chemical Weapons Convention, which poses great challenges for identification and verification. A three-step integrated untargeted screening strategy was developed based on high-resolution mass spectrometry. First, an extensible homemade library for targeted screening of common classical agents was established. Second, a set of in-source collision-induced dissociation mass spectrometry (MS)-alerting ions was extracted and concluded based on fragmentation behavior studies, which included 40 specific alerting ions and 10 types of characteristic structural fragments from total NAs and their DPs. A novel "alerting ion" searching method was developed to rapidly and sensitively screen whether or not nerve agent-related compounds were present and of which type they were. Third, we built a theoretical exact mass database including 202 accurate masses or molecular formulas, which could cover all structural possibilities of the NAs and their DPs. Comprehensively, the elemental composition of pseudomolecular ions, fragment ions, MS/MS spectra, and isotope pattern information were obtained from the full scan MS/data dependent-MS2 experiments and elucidated for identification of the candidates selected in the screening step. This strategy was successfully applied to the identification of unknown chemicals in real samples with good stability and a low limit of detection of 1-10 ng/mL. These procedures are applicable for trace forensic investigations in cases of the alleged use of nerve agents.

Structural and kinetic evidence of aging after organophosphate inhibition of human Cathepsin A.

Human Cathepsin A (CatA) is a lysosomal serine carboxypeptidase of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) and is structurally similar to acetylcholinesterase (AChE). CatA can remove the C-terminal amino acids of endothelin I, angiotensin I, Substance P, oxytocin, and bradykinin, and can deamidate neurokinin A. Proteomic studies identified CatA and its homologue, SCPEP1, as potential targets of organophosphates (OP). CatA could be stably inhibited by low µM to high nM concentrations of racemic sarin (GB), soman (GD), cyclosarin (GF), VX, and VR within minutes to hours at pH 7. Cyclosarin was the most potent with a kinetically measured dissociation constant (KI) of 2 µM followed by VR (KI = 2.8 µM). Bimolecular rate constants for inhibition by cyclosarin and VR were 1.3 × 103 M-1sec-1 and 1.2 × 103 M-1sec-1, respectively, and were approximately 3-orders of magnitude lower than those of human AChE indicating slower reactivity. Notably, both AChE and CatA bound diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP) comparably and had KIDFP = 13 µM and 11 µM, respectively. At low pH, greater than 85% of the enzyme spontaneously reactivated after OP inhibition, conditions under which OP-adducts of cholinesterases irreversibly age. At pH 6.5 CatA remained stably inhibited by GB and GF and <10% of the enzyme spontaneously reactivated after 200 h. A crystal structure of DFP-inhibited CatA was determined and contained an aged adduct. Similar to AChE, CatA appears to have a "backdoor" for product release. CatA has not been shown previously to age. These results may have implications for: OP-associated inflammation; cardiovascular effects; and the dysregulation of RAS enzymes by OP.

Retrospective determination of regenerated nerve agent sarin in human blood by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and in vivo implementation in rabbit.

The highly toxic nerve agent sarin (o-isopropyl methyl-phosphonofluoridate, GB) has been used in several armed conflicts and terror attacks in recent decades. Due to its inherent high sensitivity, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) has the potential to detect ultratrace levels of fluoride-regenerated G and V agents after appropriate chemical derivatization. A new method for the retrospective determination of exposure to sarin was developed. The method is based on sarin regeneration from blood using the fluoride-induced technique followed by derivatization with 2-[(dimethylamino)methyl]phenol (2-DMAMP) and LC-ESI-MS/MS (MRM) analysis. The validated method presents good linear response in the concentration range of 5-1000 pg/mL with a limit of quantitation (LOQ) of 5 pg/mL, 13.8% accuracy, 16.7% precision and a total recovery of 62% ± 9%. This new analytical approach has several advantages over existing GC/GC-MS-based methods in terms of sensitivity, specificity and simplicity, in addition to a short LC-MS cycle time of 12 min. The method was successfully applied in an in vivo experiment for retrospective determination of sarin in a rabbit exposed to 0.1 LD50 sarin (1.5 µg/kg, i.v.). GB-2-DMAMP was easily determined in samples drawn up to 11 days after exposure. The high S/N ratio (500) observed for the GB-2-DMAMP signal in the 11day sample poses the potential for an extended time frame of months for analysis with this new method for the retrospective detection of sarin exposure. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on LC-MS/MS trace analysis of regenerated GB from biological matrices.

Development of technologies applied to the biodegradation of warfare nerve agents: Theoretical evidence for asymmetric homogeneous catalysis.

Organophosphorus compounds have been widely employed to the development of warfare nerve agents and pesticides, resulting in a huge number of people intoxicated annually, being a serious problem of public health. Efforts worldwide have been done in order to design new technologies that are capable of combating or even reversing the poisoning caused by these OP nerve agents. In this line, the bioremediation arises as a promising and efficient alternative for this purpose. As an example of degrading enzymes, there is the organophosphate-degrading (OpdA) enzyme from Agrobacterium radiobacter, which has been quite investigated experimentally due to its high performance in the degradation of neurotoxic nerve agents. This work aims to look into the structural and electronic details that govern the interaction modes of these compounds in the OpdA active site, with the posterior hydrolysis reaction prediction. Our findings have brought about data about the OpdA performance towards different nerve agents, and among them, we may realize that the degradation efficiency strongly depends on the nerve agent structure and its stereochemistry, being in this case the compound Tabun the one more effectively hydrolyzed. By means of the chemical bonds (AIM) and orbitals (FERMO) analysis, it is suggested that the initial reactivity of the OP nerve agents in the OpdA active site does not necessarily dictate the reactivity and interaction modes over the reaction coordinate.

Butyrylcholinesterase inhibited by nerve agents is efficiently reactivated with chlorinated pyridinium oximes.

Bispyridinium oximes with one (K865, K866, K867) or two (K868, K869, K870) ortho-positioned chlorine moiety, analogous to previously known K027, K048 and K203 oximes, and potent reactivators of human acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibited by nerve agents, were tested in the reactivation of human butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) inhibited by sarin, cyclosarin, VX, and tabun. A previously highlighted AChE reactivator, dichlorinated bispyridinium oxime with propyl linker (K868), was tested in more detail for reactivation of four nerve agent-BChE conjugates. Its BChE reactivation potency was showed to be promising when compared to the standard oximes used in medical practice, asoxime (HI-6) and pralidoxime (2-PAM), especially in case of sarin and tabun. This finding could be used in the pseudo-catalytic scavenging of the most nerve agents due to its cumulative capacity to reactivate both AChE and BChE.