γ2 and γ1AP-1 complexes: Different essential functions and regulatory mechanisms in clathrin-dependent protein sorting.

γ2 adaptin is homologous to γ1, but is only expressed in vertebrates while γ1 is found in all eukaryotes. We know little about γ2 functions and their relation to γ1. γ1 is an adaptin of the heterotetrameric AP-1 complexes, which sort proteins in and do form clathrin-coated transport vesicles and they also regulate maturation of early endosomes. γ1 knockout mice develop only to blastocysts and thus γ2 does not compensate γ1-deficiency in development. γ2 has not been classified as a clathrin-coated vesicle adaptor protein in proteome analyses and functions for monomeric γ2 in endosomal protein sorting have been proposed, but adaptin interaction studies suggested formation of heterotetrameric AP-1/γ2 complexes. We detected γ2 at the trans-Golgi network, on peripheral vesicles and identified γ2 clathrin-coated vesicles in mice. Ubiquitous σ1A and tissue-specific σ1B adaptins bind γ2 and γ1. σ1B knockout in mice does not effect γ1/σ1A AP-1 levels, but γ2/σ1A AP-1 levels are increased in brain and adipocytes. Also γ2 is essential in development. In zebrafish AP-1/γ2 and AP-1/γ1 fulfill different, essential functions in brain and the vascular system.

Adaptor protein-2 sigma subunit mutations causing familial hypocalciuric hypercalcaemia type 3 (FHH3) demonstrate genotype-phenotype correlations, codon bias and dominant-negative effects.

The adaptor protein-2 sigma subunit (AP2σ2) is pivotal for clathrin-mediated endocytosis of plasma membrane constituents such as the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR). Mutations of the AP2σ2 Arg15 residue result in familial hypocalciuric hypercalcaemia type 3 (FHH3), a disorder of extracellular calcium (Ca(2+) o) homeostasis. To elucidate the role of AP2σ2 in Ca(2+) o regulation, we investigated 65 FHH probands, without other FHH-associated mutations, for AP2σ2 mutations, characterized their functional consequences and investigated the genetic mechanisms leading to FHH3. AP2σ2 mutations were identified in 17 probands, comprising 5 Arg15Cys, 4 Arg15His and 8 Arg15Leu mutations. A genotype-phenotype correlation was observed with the Arg15Leu mutation leading to marked hypercalcaemia. FHH3 probands harboured additional phenotypes such as cognitive dysfunction. All three FHH3-causing AP2σ2 mutations impaired CaSR signal transduction in a dominant-negative manner. Mutational bias was observed at the AP2σ2 Arg15 residue as other predicted missense substitutions (Arg15Gly, Arg15Pro and Arg15Ser), which also caused CaSR loss-of-function, were not detected in FHH probands, and these mutations were found to reduce the numbers of CaSR-expressing cells. FHH3 probands had significantly greater serum calcium (sCa) and magnesium (sMg) concentrations with reduced urinary calcium to creatinine clearance ratios (CCCR) in comparison with FHH1 probands with CaSR mutations, and a calculated index of sCa × sMg/100 × CCCR, which was ≥ 5.0, had a diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of 83 and 86%, respectively, for FHH3. Thus, our studies demonstrate AP2σ2 mutations to result in a more severe FHH phenotype with genotype-phenotype correlations, and a dominant-negative mechanism of action with mutational bias at the Arg15 residue.

Polarized sorting of the copper transporter ATP7B in neurons mediated by recognition of a dileucine signal by AP-1.

Neurons are highly polarized cells having distinct somatodendritic and axonal domains. Here we report that polarized sorting of the Cu(2+) transporter ATP7B and the vesicle-SNARE VAMP4 to the somatodendritic domain of rat hippocampal neurons is mediated by recognition of dileucine-based signals in the cytosolic domains of the proteins by the σ1 subunit of the clathrin adaptor AP-1. Under basal Cu(2+) conditions, ATP7B was localized to the trans-Golgi network (TGN) and the plasma membrane of the soma and dendrites but not the axon. Mutation of a dileucine-based signal in ATP7B or overexpression of a dominant-negative σ1 mutant resulted in nonpolarized distribution of ATP7B between the somatodendritic and axonal domains. Furthermore, addition of high Cu(2+) concentrations, previously shown to reduce ATP7B incorporation into AP-1-containing clathrin-coated vesicles, caused loss of TGN localization and somatodendritic polarity of ATP7B. These findings support the notion of AP-1 as an effector of polarized sorting in neurons and suggest that altered polarity of ATP7B in polarized cell types might contribute to abnormal copper metabolism in the MEDNIK syndrome, a neurocutaneous disorder caused by mutations in the σ1A subunit isoform of AP-1.

Mutations in AP2S1 cause familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia type 3.

Adaptor protein-2 (AP2), a central component of clathrin-coated vesicles (CCVs), is pivotal in clathrin-mediated endocytosis, which internalizes plasma membrane constituents such as G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). AP2, a heterotetramer of α, ß, µ and σ subunits, links clathrin to vesicle membranes and binds to tyrosine- and dileucine-based motifs of membrane-associated cargo proteins. Here we show that missense mutations of AP2 σ subunit (AP2S1) affecting Arg15, which forms key contacts with dileucine-based motifs of CCV cargo proteins, result in familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia type 3 (FHH3), an extracellular calcium homeostasis disorder affecting the parathyroids, kidneys and bone. We found AP2S1 mutations in >20% of cases of FHH without mutations in calcium-sensing GPCR (CASR), which cause FHH1. AP2S1 mutations decreased the sensitivity of CaSR-expressing cells to extracellular calcium and reduced CaSR endocytosis, probably through loss of interaction with a C-terminal CaSR dileucine-based motif, whose disruption also decreased intracellular signaling. Thus, our results identify a new role for AP2 in extracellular calcium homeostasis.

Mutations in the AP1S2 gene encoding the sigma 2 subunit of the adaptor protein 1 complex are associated with syndromic X-linked mental retardation with hydrocephalus and calcifications in basal ganglia.

Fried syndrome, first described in 1972, is a rare X-linked mental retardation that has been mapped by linkage to Xp22. Clinical characteristics include mental retardation, mild facial dysmorphism, calcifications of basal ganglia and hydrocephalus. A large four-generation family in which the affected males have striking clinical features of Fried syndrome were investigated for linkage to X-chromosome markers; the results showed that the gene for this condition lies within the interval DXS7109-DXS7593 in Xp22.2. In total, 60 candidate genes located in this region, including AP1S2, which was recently shown to be involved in mental retardation, were screened for mutations. A mutation in the third intron of AP1S2 was found in all affected male subjects in this large French family. The mutation resulted in skipping of exon 3, predicting a protein with three novel amino-acids and with termination at codon 64. In addition, the first known large Scottish family affected by Fried syndrome was reinvestigated, and a new nonsense mutation, p.Gln66X, was found in exon 3. Using CT, both affected patients from the French family who were analysed had marked calcifications of the basal ganglia, as previously observed in the first Scottish family, suggesting that the presence of distinctive basal ganglia calcification is an essential parameter to recognise this syndromic disorder. It may be possible to use this feature to identify families with X-linked mental retardation that should be screened for mutations in AP1S2.