Tetanus toxin and botulinum neurotoxin-derived fusion molecules are effective bivalent vaccines.

Tetanus toxin (TeNT) and botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are neuroprotein toxins, with the latter being the most toxic known protein. They are structurally similar and contain three functional domains: an N-terminal catalytic domain (light chain), an internal heavy-chain translocation domain (HN domain), and a C-terminal heavy chain receptor binding domain (Hc domain or RBD). In this study, fusion functional domain molecules consisting of the TeNT RBD (THc) and the BoNT/A RBD (AHc) (i.e., THc-Linker-AHc and AHc-Linker-THc) were designed, prepared, and identified. The interaction of each Hc domain and the ganglioside receptor (GT1b) or the receptor synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2 (SV2) was explored in vitro. Their immune response characteristics and protective efficacy were investigated in animal models. The recombinant THc-linker-AHc and AHc-linker-THc proteins with the binding activity had the correct size and structure, thus representing novel subunit vaccines. THc-linker-AHc and AHc-linker-THc induced high levels of specific neutralizing antibodies, and showed strong immune protective efficacy against both toxins. The high antibody titers against the two novel fusion domain molecules and against individual THc and AHc suggested that the THc and AHc domains, as antigens in the fusion functional domain molecules, do not interact with each other and retain their full key epitopes responsible for inducing neutralizing antibodies. Thus, the recombinant THc-linker-AHc and AHc-linker-THc molecules are strong and effective bivalent biotoxin vaccines, protecting against two biotoxins simultaneously. Our experimental design will be valuable to develop recombinant double-RBD fusion molecules as potent bivalent subunit vaccines against bio-toxins. KEY POINTS: • Double-RBD fusion molecules from two toxins had the correct structure and activity. • THc-linker-AHc and AHc-linker-THc efficiently protected against both biotoxins. • Such bivalent biotoxin vaccines based on the RBD are a valuable experimental design.

Preparation and characterization of a neutralizing murine monoclonal antibody against tetanus toxin.

After Clostridium tetani infects the human body, it propagates under anaerobic conditions and produces tetanus neurotoxin (TeNT). TeNT can affect the central nervous system, inhibit the release of neurotransmitters, and result in respiratory failure, which are the root causes of death in tetanus patients. Identifying monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) targeting TeNT with neutralizing activity is urgently needed for the prevention and treatment of tetanus infection. In this study, through immunizing BALB/c mice with tetanus toxoid (TT), we obtained six positive hybridoma cell lines (1A7, 2C7, 3A7, 3H4, 4C1, and 4E12). Antibody isotyping showed that the antibodies are all of the IgG1/κ subclass. Ascites fluid was prepared by allogeneic ascites induction and the antibodies were purified through protein G affinity chromatography columns. Purities of the produced murine mAbs were all greater than 95%. All six antibodies bound to linear epitopes, among which 3A7 bound to the TeNT/L domain and the other five antibodies bound to the TeNT/Hc domain. Moreover, the affinity constants of these six antibodies against the antigen were all in the nanomolar range, and the affinity of 4E12 antibody reached the picomolar range. Results from toxin-neutralization assays in mice showed that 2C7 antibody delayed animal death, while 1A7, 3A7, 3H4, and 4E12 antibodies conferred partial protection. Additionally, 4C1 antibody offered complete protection, as 200 µg of 4C1 antibody fully protected against toxin challenge with 10 LD50 of TeNT and had a window period of 1 h. Antibody epitope grouping results revealed that the binding epitopes of 4C1 antibody were different from those of the other five antibodies. When 4C1 antibody was used in combination with another antibody, the neutralizing activities of antibodies were all evidently enhanced. Specifically, 4C1 combined with 3A7 antibody led to the greatest improvement in neutralizing activities, and 20 µg antibodies total (10 + 10 µg) fully protected against toxin challenge with 10 LD50. When 4E12, 3A7, and 4C1 antibodies were used in combination, 18 µg antibodies total (6 + 6 + 6 µg) completely neutralized 10 LD50 toxin. The present study derived murine mAbs with neutralizing activities and laid the foundation for follow-up therapeutic drug development for TeNT poisoning as well as establishment of TeNT detection methods.

Crystal structure of the OrfX1-OrfX3 complex from the PMP1 neurotoxin gene cluster.

Paraclostridial mosquitocidal protein 1 (PMP1) is a member of the clostridial neurotoxin (CNT) family, which includes botulinum and tetanus neurotoxins. PMP1 has unique selectivity for anopheline mosquitos and is the only known member of the family that targets insects. PMP1 is encoded in an orfX gene cluster, which in addition to the toxin, consists of OrfX1, OrfX2, OrfX3, P47 and NTNH, which have been shown to aid in PMP1 toxicity. We here show that OrfX1 and OrfX3 form a complex and present its structure at 2.7 Å. The OrfX1-OrfX3 complex mimics the structure of full-length OrfX2 and belongs to the lipid-binding TULIP protein superfamily. With this report, the structures of all proteins encoded in the orfX gene cluster of CNTs are now determined.

Lasting Peripheral and Central Effects of Botulinum Toxin Type A on Experimental Muscle Hypertonia in Rats.

Recent animal experiments suggested that centrally transported botulinum toxin type A (BoNT-A) might reduce an abnormal muscle tone, though with an unknown contribution to the dominant peripheral muscular effect observed clinically. Herein, we examined if late BoNT-A antispastic actions persist due to possible central toxin actions in rats. The early effect of intramuscular (i.m.) BoNT-A (5, 2 and 1 U/kg) on a reversible tetanus toxin (TeNT)-induced calf muscle spasm was examined 7 d post-TeNT and later during recovery from flaccid paralysis (TeNT reinjected on day 49 post-BoNT-A). Lumbar intrathecal (i.t.) BoNT-A-neutralizing antiserum was used to discriminate the transcytosis-dependent central toxin action of 5 U/kg BoNT-A. BoNT-A-truncated synaptosomal-associated protein 25 immunoreactivity was examined in the muscles and spinal cord at day 71 post-BoNT-A. All doses (5, 2 and 1 U/kg) induced similar antispastic actions in the early period (days 1-14) post-BoNT-A. After repeated TeNT, only the higher two doses prevented the muscle spasm and associated locomotor deficit. Central trans-synaptic activity contributed to the late antispastic effect of 5 U/kg BoNT-A. Ongoing BoNT-A enzymatic activity was present in both injected muscle and the spinal cord. These observations suggest that the treatment duration in sustained or intermittent muscular hyperactivity might be maintained by higher doses and combined peripheral and central BoNT-A action.

Detection of VAMP Proteolysis by Tetanus and Botulinum Neurotoxin Type B In Vivo with a Cleavage-Specific Antibody.

Tetanus and Botulinum type B neurotoxins are bacterial metalloproteases that specifically cleave the vesicle-associated membrane protein VAMP at an identical peptide bond, resulting in inhibition of neuroexocytosis. The minute amounts of these neurotoxins commonly used in experimental animals are not detectable, nor is detection of their VAMP substrate sensitive enough. The immune detection of the cleaved substrate is much more sensitive, as we have previously shown for botulinum neurotoxin type A. Here, we describe the production in rabbit of a polyclonal antibody raised versus a peptide encompassing the 13 residues C-terminal with respect to the neurotoxin cleavage site. The antibody was affinity purified and found to recognize, with high specificity and selectivity, the novel N-terminus of VAMP that becomes exposed after cleavage by tetanus toxin and botulinum toxin type B. This antibody recognizes the neoepitope not only in native and denatured VAMP but also in cultured neurons and in neurons in vivo in neurotoxin-treated mice or rats, suggesting the great potential of this novel tool to elucidate tetanus and botulinum B toxin activity in vivo.

Insights into Clostridium tetani: From genome to bioreactors.

Tetanus vaccination is of major importance for public health in most countries in the world. The World Health Organization indicated that 15,000 tetanus cases were reported in 2018 (Organization, World Health, 2019). Currently, vaccine manufacturers use tetanus toxin produced by Clostridium tetani fermentation in complex media. The complex components, commonly derived from animal sources, introduce potential variability in cultures. To achieve replicable fermentation and to avoid toxic or allergic reactions from animal-source compounds, several studies have tried to switch from complex to chemically defined media without affecting toxin titers. The present review introduces the current knowledge on i) C. tetani strain diversity, whole-genome sequences and metabolic networks; ii) toxin regulation and synthesis; and iii) culture media, cultivation processes and growth requirements. We critically reviewed the reported data on metabolism in C. tetani and completed comparative genomic and proteomic analyses with other Clostridia species. We integrated genomic data based on whole-genome sequence annotation, supplemented with cofactor specificities determined by protein sequence identity, in a new map of C. tetani central metabolism. This is the first data review that integrates insights from omics experiments on C. tetani. The overview of C. tetani physiology described here could provide support for the design of new chemically defined media devoid of complex sources for toxin production.

The C-terminal domain of the heavy chain of tetanus toxin prevents the oxidative and nitrosative stress induced by acute toxicity of 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium, a rat model of Parkinson's disease.

The recombinant carboxyl-terminal domain of the heavy chain of tetanus toxin (Hc-TeTx) exerts neuroprotective and neurorestorative effects on the dopaminergic system of animal models of Parkinson's disease (PD). The present study aimed to determine the effect of the Hc-TeTx fragment on the markers of oxidative stress and nitrosative stress generated by the acute toxicity of 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+). For this purpose, the Hc-TeTx fragment was administered once a day in three 20 µg/kg consecutive injections into the grastrocnemius muscle of the rats, with an intra-striatal unilateral injection of 1 µL of MPP+ [10 µg/mL] then administered in order to cause a dopaminergic lesion. The results obtained show that the rats treated with Hc-TeTx plus MPP+ presented an increase in the expression of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), a significantly greater decrease in the levels of the markers of oxidative stress, nitrosative stress, and neurodegeneration than that observed for the group injured with only MPP+. Moreover, it was observed that total superoxide dismutase (SOD) and copper/zinc SOD activity increased with the administration of Hc-TeTx. Finally, immunoreactivity levels were observed to decrease for the levels of 3-nitrotyrosine and the glial fibrillary acidic protein in the ipsilateral striatum of the rats treated with Hc-TeTx plus MPP+, in contrast with those lesioned with MPP+ alone. Our results demonstrate that the recombinant Hc-TeTx fragment may be a potent antioxidant and, therefore, could be suggested as a therapeutic tool against the dopaminergic neuronal impairment observed in the early stages of PD.

Interaction between a Novel Oligopeptide Fragment of the Human Neurotrophin Receptor TrkB Ectodomain D5 and the C-Terminal Fragment of Tetanus Neurotoxin.

This article presents experimental evidence and computed molecular models of a potential interaction between receptor domain D5 of TrkB with the carboxyl-terminal domain of tetanus neurotoxin (Hc-TeNT). Computational simulations of a novel small cyclic oligopeptide are designed, synthesized, and tested for possible tetanus neurotoxin-D5 interaction. A hot spot of this protein-protein interaction is identified in analogy to the hitherto known crystal structures of the complex between neurotrophin and D5. Hc-TeNT activates the neurotrophin receptors, as well as its downstream signaling pathways, inducing neuroprotection in different stress cellular models. Based on these premises, we propose the Trk receptor family as potential proteic affinity receptors for TeNT. In vitro, Hc-TeNT binds to a synthetic TrkB-derived peptide and acts similar to an agonist ligand for TrkB, resulting in phosphorylation of the receptor. These properties are weakened by the mutagenesis of three residues of the predicted interaction region in Hc-TeNT. It also competes with Brain-derived neurotrophic factor, a native binder to human TrkB, for the binding to neural membranes, and for uptake in TrkB-positive vesicles. In addition, both molecules are located together In Vivo at neuromuscular junctions and in motor neurons.

Tetanus and tetanus neurotoxin: From peripheral uptake to central nervous tissue targets.

Tetanus is a deadly but preventable disease caused by a protein neurotoxin produced by Clostridium tetani. Spores of C. tetani may contaminate a necrotic wound and germinate into a vegetative bacterium that releases a toxin, termed tetanus neurotoxin (TeNT). TeNT enters the general circulation, binds to peripheral motor neurons and sensory neurons, and is transported retroaxonally to the spinal cord. It then enters inhibitory interneurons and blocks the release of glycine or GABA causing a spastic paralysis. This review attempts to correlate the metalloprotease activity of TeNT and its trafficking and localization into the vertebrate body to the nature and sequence of appearance of the symptoms of tetanus.

The C-terminal fragment of the heavy chain of the tetanus toxin (Hc-TeTx) improves motor activity and neuronal morphology in the limbic system of aged mice.

In the aging process, the brain presents biochemical and morphological alterations. The neurons of the limbic system show reduced size dendrites, in addition to the loss of dendritic spines. These disturbances trigger a decrease in motor and cognitive function. Likewise, it is reported that during aging, in the brain, there is a significant decrease in neurotrophic factors, which are essential in promoting the survival and plasticity of neurons. The carboxyl-terminal fragment of the heavy chain of the tetanus toxin (Hc-TeTx) acts similarly to neurotrophic factors, inducing neuroprotection in different models of neuronal damage. The aim here, was to evaluate the effect of Hc-TeTx on the motor processes of elderly mice (18 months old), and its impact on the dendritic morphology and density of dendritic spines of neurons in the limbic system. The morphological analysis in the dendrites was evaluated employing Golgi-Cox staining. Hc-TeTx was administered (0.5 mg/kg) intraperitoneally for three days in 18-month-old mice. Locomotor activity was evaluated in a novel environment 30 days after the last administration of Hc-TeTx. Mice treated with Hc-TeTx showed significant changes in their motor behavior, and an increased dendritic spine density of pyramidal neurons in layers 3 and 5 of the prefrontal cortex in the hippocampus, and medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens (NAcc). In conclusion, the Hc-TeTx improves the plasticity of the brain regions of the limbic system of aged mice. Therefore, it is proposed as a pharmacological alternative to prevent or delay brain damage during aging.

The temperature of growth and sporulation modulates the efficiency of spore-display in Bacillus subtilis.

BACKGROUND: Bacterial spores displaying heterologous antigens or enzymes have long been proposed as mucosal vaccines, functionalized probiotics or biocatalysts. Two main strategies have been developed to display heterologous molecules on the surface of Bacillus subtilis spores: (i) a recombinant approach, based on the construction of a gene fusion between a gene coding for a coat protein (carrier) and DNA coding for the protein to be displayed, and (ii) a non-recombinant approach, based on the spontaneous and stable adsorption of heterologous molecules on the spore surface. Both systems have advantages and drawbacks and the selection of one or the other depends on the protein to be displayed and on the final use of the activated spore. It has been recently shown that B. subtilis builds structurally and functionally different spores when grown at different temperatures; based on this finding B. subtilis spores prepared at 25, 37 or 42 °C were compared for their efficiency in displaying various model proteins by either the recombinant or the non-recombinant approach. RESULTS: Immune- and fluorescence-based assays were used to analyze the display of several model proteins on spores prepared at 25, 37 or 42 °C. Recombinant spores displayed different amounts of the same fusion protein in response to the temperature of spore production. In spores simultaneously displaying two fusion proteins, each of them was differentially displayed at the various temperatures. The display by the non-recombinant approach was only modestly affected by the temperature of spore production, with spores prepared at 37 or 42 °C slightly more efficient than 25 °C spores in adsorbing at least some of the model proteins tested. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that the temperature of spore production allows control of the display of heterologous proteins on spores and, therefore, that the spore-display strategy can be optimized for the specific final use of the activated spores by selecting the display approach, the carrier protein and the temperature of spore production.

Axonal Transport as an In Vivo Biomarker for Retinal Neuropathy.

We illuminate a possible explanatory pathophysiologic mechanism for retinal cellular neuropathy by means of a novel diagnostic method using ophthalmoscopic imaging and a molecular imaging agent targeted to fast axonal transport. The retinal neuropathies are a group of diseases with damage to retinal neural elements. Retinopathies lead to blindness but are typically diagnosed late, when substantial neuronal loss and vision loss have already occurred. We devised a fluorescent imaging agent based on the non-toxic C fragment of tetanus toxin (TTc), which is taken up and transported in neurons using the highly conserved fast axonal transport mechanism. TTc serves as an imaging biomarker for normal axonal transport and demonstrates impairment of axonal transport early in the course of an N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA)-induced excitotoxic retinopathy model in rats. Transport-related imaging findings were dramatically different between normal and retinopathic eyes prior to presumed neuronal cell death. This proof-of-concept study provides justification for future clinical translation.

Overview of the mammalian ADP-ribosyl-transferases clostridia toxin-like (ARTCs) family.

Mono-ADP-ribosylation is a reversible post-translational protein modification that modulates the function of proteins involved in different cellular processes, including signal transduction, protein transport, transcription, cell cycle regulation, DNA repair and apoptosis. In mammals, mono-ADP-ribosylation is mainly catalyzed by members of two different classes of enzymes: ARTCs and ARTDs. The human ARTC family is composed of four structurally related ecto-mono-ARTs, expressed at the cell surface or secreted into the extracellular compartment that are either active mono-ARTs (hARTC1, hARTC5) or inactive proteins (hARTC3, hARTC4). The human ARTD enzyme family consists of 17 multidomain proteins that can be divided on the basis of their catalytic activity into polymerases (ARTD1-6), mono-ART (ARTD7-17), and the inactive ARTD13. In recent years, ADP-ribosylation was intensively studied, and research was dominated by studies focusing on the role of this modification and its implication on various cellular processes. The aim of this review is to provide a general overview of the ARTC enzymes. In the following sections, we will report the mono-ADP-ribosylation reactions that are catalysed by the active ARTC enzymes, with a particular focus on hARTC1 that recently has been intensively studied with the discovery of new targets and functions.

Antidepressant effects of C-Terminal domain of the heavy chain of tetanus toxin in a rat model of depression.

The C-terminal domain of the heavy chain of tetanus toxin (Hc-TeTx) may be of therapeutic potential in motor impairments associated with Parkinson disease (PD). Since depression is a common co-morbid condition with PD, we undertook this study to determine whether Hc-TeTx might also show antidepressant-like properties and whether central brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and/or tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha are also affected by it. Adult male Wistar-Kyoto rats, a putative animal model of depression, were treated with various doses of Hc-TeTx (0, 20, 40 and 60 µg/kg, IM) and their performance in the open field locomotor activity (OFLA) as well as in the forced swim test (FST) was evaluated at 24 h, one week and two weeks after the single injection. A separate group of rats were injected with 60 µg/kg Hc-TeTx and sacrificed 24 h later for neurochemical evaluations. Hc-TeTx resulted in a dose-dependent decrease in immobility score after 24 h, whereas OFLA was not affected. Concomitant with the 24 h behavioral effects, the levels of hippocampal and frontal cortical BDNF were significantly increased, whereas the levels of TNF-alpha in both these areas were significantly decreased. The decrease in immobility scores following higher doses of Hc-TeTx were still evident after one week, but not 2 weeks of rest. These results indicate long lasting antidepressant effects of a single Hc-TeTx dose and suggest potential utility of Hc-TeTx in PD-depression co-morbidity.

Botulinum and Tetanus Neurotoxins.

Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) and tetanus neurotoxin (TeNT) are the most potent toxins known and cause botulism and tetanus, respectively. BoNTs are also widely utilized as therapeutic toxins. They contain three functional domains responsible for receptor-binding, membrane translocation, and proteolytic cleavage of host proteins required for synaptic vesicle exocytosis. These toxins also have distinct features: BoNTs exist within a progenitor toxin complex (PTC), which protects the toxin and facilitates its absorption in the gastrointestinal tract, whereas TeNT is uniquely transported retrogradely within motor neurons. Our increasing knowledge of these toxins has allowed the development of engineered toxins for medical uses. The discovery of new BoNTs and BoNT-like proteins provides additional tools to understand the evolution of the toxins and to engineer toxin-based therapeutics. This review summarizes the progress on our understanding of BoNTs and TeNT, focusing on the PTC, receptor recognition, new BoNT-like toxins, and therapeutic toxin engineering.

High-level Expression of Tetanus Toxin Fragment C in Escherichia coli.

Fragment C is the C-terminal domain of the heavy chain of tetanus toxin that can promote the immune response against the lethal dose of this toxin. Therefore, this portion can be considered as a candidate vaccine against tetanus infection, which occurs by Clostridium tetani. The present study aimed to compare the expression of tetanus toxin fragment C in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) pLysS cells having a high tolerance to toxins between two different expression vectors, namely pET22b and pET28a, using the sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and western blot analyses. After DNA extraction from Harvard CN49205 strain of C. tetani, the gene of interest was amplified using polymerase chain reaction, and then sequenced and cloned into the expression vectors of pET22b and pET28a, transformed into competent BL21 (DE3) pLysS cells, and finally expressed using an optimized protocol. The cells were induced with isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) at four different incubation temperatures (i.e., 37, 33, 30, and 25 °C) and three different incubation times (i.e., 1, 2, and 3 h). Although the SDS-PAGE and western blot analyses confirmed the expression of the recombinant fragment C (r-fragment C) ligated into both of the expression vectors, pET28a showed a higher r-fragment C expression level than the other vector (38.66 mg/L versus 32.33 mg/L, P<0.05). An optimal expression condition was acquired 3 h after 1 mM IPTG induction at 25 °C. The results demonstrated that E. coli BL21 (DE3) pLysS as an expression host in combination with pET-28a as an expression vector was a more compatible expression system to express the fragment C of tetanus toxin, compared to E. coli BL21 (DE3) pLysS/pET-22b expression system. Overall, these results may represent an opportunity to improve the expression system for the production of tetanus toxin vaccine using recombinant protein strategy.

Fine tuning neuronal targeting of nanoparticles by adjusting the ligand grafting density and combining PEG spacers of different length.

Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) has been extensively used to coat the surface of nanocarriers to improve their physicochemical properties and allow the grafting of targeting moieties. Still, to date there is no common agreement on the ideal PEG coverage-density or length to be used for optimum vector performance. In this study, we aimed to investigate the impact of both PEG density and length on the vectoring capacity of neuron-targeted gene-carrying trimethyl chitosan nanoparticles. The non-toxic fragment from the tetanus toxin (HC) was coupled to a 5 kDa heterobifunctional PEG (HC-PEG5k) reactive for the thiol groups inserted into the polymer backbone and grafted at different densities onto the nanoparticles. Internalization and transfection studies on neuronal versus non-neuronal cell lines allowed to determine the PEG density of 2 mol% of PEG chains per mol of primary amine groups as the one with superior biological performance. To enhance HC exposure and maximize cell-nanoparticle specific interaction, NPs containing different ratios of HC-PEG5k and 2 kDa methoxy-PEG at the same grafting density were produced. By intercalating HC-PEG5k with methoxy-PEG2k we attained the best performance in terms of internalization (higher payload delivery into cells) and transfection efficiency, using twice lower amount of HC. This outcome highlights the need for fine-tuning of PEG-modified nanoparticles towards the achievement of optimal targeting. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The amount and exposure of targeting moieties at a nanoparticle surface are critical parameters regarding the targeting potential of nanosized delivery vectors. However, to date, few studies have considered fundamental aspects impacting the ligand-receptor pair interaction, such as the effect of spacer chain length, flexibility or conformation. By optimizing the PEG spacer density and chain length grafted into nanoparticles, we were able to establish the formulation that maximizes cell-nanoparticle specific interaction and has superior biological performance. Our work shows that the precise adjustment of the PEG coverage-density presents a significant impact on the selectivity and bioactivity of the developed formulation, emphasizing the need for the fine-tuning of PEG-modified nanoparticles for the successful development of the next-generation nanomedicines.

The Effect of Differentially Designed Fusion Proteins to Elicit Efficient Anti-human Thyroid Stimulating Hormone Immune Responses.

The production of human thyroid stimulating hormone (hTSH) immunoassays requires specific antibodies against hTSH which is a cumbersome process. Therefore, producing specific polyclonal antibodies against engineered recombinant fusion hTSH antigens would be of great significance. The best immunogenic region of the hTSH was selected based on in silico analyses and equipped with two different fusions. Standard methods were used for protein expression, purification, verification, structural evaluation, and immunizations of the white New Zealand rabbits. Ultimately, immunized serums were used for antibody titration, purification and characterization (specificity, sensitivity and cross reactivity). The desired antigens were successfully designed, sub-cloned, expressed, confirmed and used for in vivo immunization. Structural analyses indicated that only the bigger antigen has showed changed 2 dimensional (2D) and 3D structural properties in comparison to the smaller antigen. The raised polyclonal antibodies were capable of specific and sensitive hTSH detection, while the cross reactivity with the other members of the glycoprotein hormone family was minimum and negligible. The fusion which was solely composed of the tetanus toxin epitopes led to better protein folding and was capable of immunizing the host animals resulting into high titer antibody. Therefore, the minimal fusion sequences seem to be more effective in eliciting specific antibody responses.

Inhibiting p38 MAPK alpha rescues axonal retrograde transport defects in a mouse model of ALS.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease caused by the degeneration of upper and lower motor neurons. Defects in axonal transport have been observed pre-symptomatically in the SOD1G93A mouse model of ALS, and have been proposed to play a role in motor neuron degeneration as well as in other pathologies of the nervous system, such as Alzheimer's disease and hereditary neuropathies. In this study, we screen a library of small-molecule kinase inhibitors towards the identification of pharmacological enhancers of the axonal retrograde transport of signalling endosomes, which might be used to normalise the rate of this process in diseased neurons. Inhibitors of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (p38 MAPK) were identified in this screen and were found to correct deficits in axonal retrograde transport of signalling endosomes in cultured primary SOD1G93A motor neurons. In vitro knockdown experiments revealed that the alpha isoform of p38 MAPK (p38 MAPKα) was the sole isoform responsible for SOD1G93A-induced transport deficits. Furthermore, we found that acute treatment with p38 MAPKα inhibitors restored the physiological rate of axonal retrograde transport in vivo in early symptomatic SOD1G93A mice. Our findings demonstrate the pathogenic effect of p38 MAPKα on axonal retrograde transport and identify a potential therapeutic strategy for ALS.

The travel diaries of tetanus and botulinum neurotoxins.

Tetanus (TeNT) and botulinum (BoNT) neurotoxins, the causative agents of tetanus and botulism, respectively, are the most potent toxic molecules known to mankind. This extreme potency is attributed to: i) their specificity for essential components of the neurotransmitter release machinery present at vertebrate synapses, and ii) their high-affinity targeting to motor neurons by binding to polysialogangliosides and protein receptors. Comprising the clostridial neurotoxin family, TeNT and BoNTs engage distinct surface receptors and intracellular sorting pathways in neurons. BoNTs bind to the intraluminal domain of specific synaptic vesicle proteins that are exposed to the extracellular milieu upon exocytosis, and are taken up by synaptic vesicle recycling. A sizeable proportion of BoNT molecules remain at the neuromuscular junction, where their protease moiety is released into the cytoplasm, blocking synaptic transmission and causing flaccid paralysis. In contrast, TeNT undergoes binding to specific components of the basal membrane at the neuromuscular junction, is endocytosed into motor neurons and sorted to axonal signalling endosomes. Following this, TeNT is transported to the soma of motor neurons located in the spinal cord or brainstem, and then transcytosed to inhibitory interneurons, where it blocks synaptic transmission. TeNT-induced impairment of inhibitory input leads to hyperactivity of motor neurons, causing spastic paralysis, which is the hallmark of tetanus. This review examines the molecular mechanisms leading to the entry, sorting and intracellular trafficking of TeNT and BoNTs.