Virtual fit assessment of U.S. army body armor using NASA spacesuit techniques.

Fit and accommodation are critical design goals for a body armor system to maximize Soldiers' protection, comfort, mobility, and performance. The aim of this study is to assess fit and accommodation of body armor plates for the US Army. A virtual fit assessment technique, developed, validated, and deployed by NASA for spacesuit design, was adopted for this work. Specifically, 3D manikins of the Soldier population were overlaid virtually with geometrically similar surrogates of the armor plates. Trained subject matter experts with the US Army and NASA manually assessed the fit of the armor plates to manikins using a computer visualization tool and selected the appropriate plate size and position. A prediction model was built from the assessment data to predict the plate size from an arbitrary body shape and the resultant patterns of body-to-plate contact were quantified. The outcome indicated a unique trend of the plate sizes covarying with anthropometry. More pronouncedly, when the overlap between the body tissue and armor plate was quantified, female Soldiers are likely to experience a 25 times larger body-to-plate contact volume and 6.5 times larger contact depth than males on average, due to sex-based anthropometric differences. Overall, the prediction model and contact patterns provided key metrics for virtual body armor fit assessments, of which the locations, patterns, and magnitudes can help to improve sizing and fit of body armor systems, as previously demonstrated for NASA spacesuit design.

Performance Risks During Surface Extravehicular Activity and Potential Mitigation Using Multimodal Displays.

BACKGROUND: Surface extravehicular activity (sEVA) will be a critical component of future human missions to the Moon. sEVA presents novel risks to astronaut crews not associated with microgravity operations due to fundamental differences in task demands, physiology, environment, and operations of working on the lunar surface. Multimodal spacesuit informatics displays have been proposed as a method of mitigating sEVA risk by increasing operator autonomy.METHODS: A formalized literature review was conducted. In total, 95 journal articles, conference papers, and technical reports were included. Characteristics of U.S. spacesuits were reviewed, ranging from the Apollo A7L to the xEMU Z-2.5. Multimodal display applications were then reviewed and assessed for their potential in aiding sEVA operations.RESULTS: Through literature review 25 performance impairments were identified. Performance impairments caused by the spacesuit represented the greatest number of sEVA challenges. Multimodal displays were mapped to impairments and approximately 36% of performance impairments could be aided by using display interfaces.DISCUSSION: Multimodal displays may provide additional benefits for alleviating performance impairments during sEVA. Utility of multimodal displays may be greater in certain performance impairment domains, such as spacesuit-related impairments.Zhang JY, Anderson AP. Performance risks during surface extravehicular activity and potential mitigation using multimodal displays. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2023; 94(1):34-41.

Spacesuit Center of Gravity Assessments for Partial Gravity EVA Simulation in an Underwater Environment.

OBJECTIVE: The objective is to analytically determine the expected CG and build hardware to measure and verify the suited subject's CG for lunar extravehicular activity (EVA) training in an underwater environment. BACKGROUND: For lunar EVAs, it is necessary for astronauts to train with a spacesuit in a simulated partial gravity environment. NASA's Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory (NBL) can provide these conditions by producing negative buoyancy for a submerged suited subject. However, it is critical that the center of gravity (CG) for the human-spacesuit system to be accurate for conditions expected during planetary EVAs. METHODS: An underwater force-transducer system and individualized human-spacesuit model was created to provide real-time measurement of CG, including recommendations for weight placement locations and quantity of weight needed on the spacesuit to achieve a realistic lunar spacesuit CG. This method was tested with four suited subjects. RESULTS: Across tested weighout configurations, it was observed that an aft and high CG location will have large postural differences when compared to low and fore CG locations, highlighting the importance of having a proper CG. The system had an accuracy of ±5lbs of the total lunar weight and within ± 15 cm for fore-aft and left-right CG directions of the model predictions. CONCLUSION: The developed method offers analytical verification of the suited subject's CG and improves simulation quality of lunar EVAs. Future suit design can also benefit by recommending hardware changes to create ideal CG locations that improve balance and mobility. APPLICATION: The developed methodology can be used to verify a proper CG location in future planetary EVA simulations such as different reduced gravity training analogs (e.g. active cable offloading systems).

Challenges in Quantifying Heel-Lift During Spacesuit Gait.

INTRODUCTION: Heel-lift is a subjectively reported fit issue in planetary spacesuit boot prototypes that has not yet been quantified. Inertial measurement units (IMUs) could quantify heel-lift but are susceptible to integration drift. This work evaluates the use of IMUs and drift-correction algorithms, such as zero-velocity (ZVUs) and zero-position updates (ZPUs), to quantify heel-lift during spacesuited gait.METHODS: Data was originally collected by Fineman et al. in 2018 to assess lower body relative coordination in the spacesuit. IMUs were mounted on the spacesuit lower legs (SLLs) and spacesuit operator's shank as three operators walked on a level walkway in three spacesuit padding conditions. Discrete wavelet transforms were used to identify foot-flat phase and heel-off for each step. Differences in heel-off timepoints were calculated in each step as a potential indicator of heel-lift, with spacesuit-delayed heel-off suggesting heel-lift. Average drift rates were estimated prior to and after applying ZVUs and ZPUs.RESULTS: Heel-off timepoint differences showed instances of spacesuit-delayed heel-off and instances of operator-delayed heel-off. Drift rates after applying ZVUs and ZPUs suggested an upper time bound of 0.03 s past heel-off to measure heel-lift magnitude with an accuracy of 1 cm.DISCUSSION: Results suggest that IMUs may not be appropriate for quantifying the presence and magnitude of heel lift. Operator-delayed heel-off suggests that the SLL may be expanding prior to heel-off, creating a false vertical acceleration signal interpreted by this study to be spacesuit heel-off. Quantifying heel-off will therefore require improvements in IMU mounting to mitigate the effects of SLL, or alternative sensor technologies.Boppana A, Priddy ST, Stirling L, Anderson AP. Challenges in quantifying heel-lift during spacesuit gait. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2022; 93(8):643-648.

Evaluating Lumbar Shape Deformation With Fabric Strain Sensors.

OBJECTIVE: To better study human motion inside the space suit and suit-related contact, a multifactor statistical model was developed to predict torso body shape changes and lumbar motion during suited movement by using fabric strain sensors that are placed on the body. BACKGROUND: Physical interactions within pressurized space suits can pose an injury risk for astronauts during extravehicular activity (EVA). In particular, poor suit fit can result in an injury due to reduced performance capabilities and excessive body contact within the suit during movement. A wearable solution is needed to measure body motion inside the space suit. METHODS: An array of flexible strain sensors was attached to the body of 12 male study participants. The participants performed specific static lumbar postures while 3D body scans and sensor measurements were collected. A model was created to predict the body shape as a function of sensor signal and the accuracy was evaluated using holdout cross-validation. RESULTS: Predictions from the torso shape model had an average root mean square error (RMSE) of 2.02 cm. Subtle soft tissue deformations such as skin folding and bulges were accurately replicated in the shape prediction. Differences in posture type did not affect the prediction error. CONCLUSION: This method provides a useful tool for suited testing and the information gained will drive the development of injury countermeasures and improve suit fit assessments. APPLICATION: In addition to space suit design applications, this technique can provide a lightweight and wearable system to perform ergonomic evaluations in field assessments.

Ergonomic Risk Identification for Spacesuit Movements Using Factorial Analysis.

OCCUPATIONAL APPLICATIONSBiomechanical risk factors associated with spacesuit manual material handling tasks were evaluated using the singular value decomposition (SVD) technique. SVD analysis decomposed each lifting tasks into primitive motion patterns called eigenposture progression (EP) that contributed to the overall task. Biomechanical metrics, such as total joint displacement, were calculated for each EP. The first EP (a simultaneous knee, hip, and waist movement) had greater biomechanical demands than other EPs. Thus, tasks such as lifting from the floor were identified as "riskier" by having a greater composition of the first EP. The results of this work can be used to improve a task as well as spacesuit design by minimizing riskier movement patterns as shown in this case study. This methodology can be applied in civilian occupational settings to analyze open-ended tasks (e.g., complex product assembly and construction) for ergonomics assessments. Using this method, worker task strategies can be evaluated quantitatively, compared, and redesigned when necessary.

TECHNICAL ABSTRACTBackground Astronauts will perform manual materials handling tasks during future Lunar and Martian exploration missions. Wearing a spacesuit will change lifting kinematics, which could lead to increased musculoskeletal stresses. Thus, it is important to understand how suited motion patterns affect injury risk.Purpose The objective of this study was to use the singular value decomposition (SVD) technique to assess movement differences between lifting techniques in a spacesuit with respect to biomechanical risk factors.Methods Joint angles were derived from motion capture data of lifting tasks performed in the MK-III spacesuit. SVD was performed on the joint angles, extracting the common patterns ("eigenposture progressions") across each task and their weightings as a function of time. Biomechanical risk factors such as total joint displacement, moments at the low back waist joint, and stability metrics were calculated for each eigenposture progression (EP). These metrics were related back to each task and compared.Results The resulting EPs represented characteristic motions that composed each task. For example, the first eigenposture progression (EP1) was identified as waist, hip, and knee motions and the second eigenposture progression (EP2) was described as arm motions. EPs were coupled with different levels of biomechanical stresses, such that EP1 resulted in the greatest amount of joint displacement and low back moment compared to the other EPs. Tasks such as lifting from the floor were identified as "riskier" due to a higher composition of EP1. Differences in EP weightings were also observed across subjects with varying levels of suited experience.Conclusions The linear factorial analysis, combined with biomechanical stress variables, demonstrated an easy and consistent approach to assess injury risk by relating risk to derived EPs and motions. As shown in the lifting analysis and case study example, suited movement strategies or interventions that minimize "riskier" EPs and reduce injury risk were identified. With further development, a future analysis of relevant suited actions can inform mission and suit design.

Electrical Shock Hazard Severity Estimation During Extravehicular Activity for the International Space Station.

INTRODUCTION: Research has shown that astronauts performing extravehicular activities may be exposed, under certain conditions, to undesired electrical hazards. This study used computer models to determine whether these undesired induced electrical currents could be responsible for involuntary neuromuscular activity caused by either large diameter peripheral nerve activation or reflex activity from cutaneous afferent stimulation.METHODS: A multiresolution variant of the admittance method along with a magnetic resonance image millimeter resolution model of a male human body were used to calculate the following: 1) induced electric fields; 2) resistance between contact areas in a Extravehicular Mobility Unit spacesuit; 3) currents induced in the human body; 4) the physiological effects of these electrical exposures; and 5) the risk to the crew during extravehicular activities.RESULTS: Using typical EMU shock exposure conditions, with a 15V source, the current density magnitudes and total current injected are well above previously reported startle reaction thresholds. This indicates that, under the considered conditions during a spacewalk in the charged ionospheric plasma of space, astronauts could experience possibly harmful involuntary motor response and sensory pain nerve activation.Hamilton DR. Electrical shock hazard severity estimation during extravehicular activity for the International Space Station. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2021; 92(4):231239.

Analysis of the relationship between hip joint flexion/extension and torques in the mark III space suit using a computational dynamics model.

Advanced SSAs (e.g., the Mark III (MKIII)) were designed to increase mobility by eliminating the volume change associated with bending joints by using constant-volume rigid components with bearings connecting these components. Even with these changes, there are added torques required by the operator to drive the motion, which increases the energy expenditure with respect to unsuited motion. Part of the added effort stems from the mass and inertia of the suit, as well as frictional resistances to motion. This research considers the relationship between joint torques that an operator must generate and the resulting flexion/extension of the hip bearing assembly. A computational dynamics model of the MKIII inclusive of inertial and bearing friction properties was created and sensitivities of the model to input parameters (e.g., applied force, direction of gravity, bearing friction magnitude, knee angle) were investigated. The model was configured to match previously collected benchtop experimental suit data without a human that was externally forced. The model captured the hysteretic behaviour and estimated about 80% of the mean hip angle range as compared to the experimental data. Decreasing bearing resistance increased alignment with the experimental data. The torque due to inertia and friction each had periods where they dominated the total torque, supporting the importance of minimizing both mass and bearing friction. The present effort also highlighted how external forces and boundary conditions affected peak hip flexion/extension. Future efforts can use these types of dynamics models to examine motions driven internally by a person to achieve specific motions.

Custom solution for personal protective equipment (PPE) in the orthopaedic setting: retrofitting Stryker Flyte T5 PPE system.

The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic has meant that there is growing pressure on hospital resources, not least the availability of appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), particularly face masks and respirator masks. Within the field of orthopaedic surgery, it is a common sight to see surgeons wearing 'space suits' (SSs) which comprise a helmet, hood and surgical gown. In this study, the authors made modifications to two different SS systems to incorporate a high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter into the fan inlet to assess their potential as re-usable PPE systems for surgeons with regard to protection from a virus spread via respiratory droplets. The testing was carried out using particle counters upstream and downstream on a mannequin wearing two different SS systems with and without modifications to the fan inlet. The results show that using a layer of HEPA filter, cut to size and sealed to the fan inlet in the helmet, will reduce downstream particulates at the user's mouth by >99.5%; this is equivalent to a respirator mask. HEPA filter material is relatively cheap and can be used repeatedly, making this a viable alternative to disposable, and even resterilized, respirator masks in the setting of a respiratory-droplet-spread viral pandemic.

The Partial Pressure of Inspired Carbon Dioxide Exposure Levels in the Extravehicular Mobility Unit.

BACKGROUND: NASA has been making efforts to assess the carbon dioxide (CO2) washout capability of spacesuits using a standard CO2 sampling protocol. This study established the methodology for determining the partial pressure of inspired CO2 (PIco2) in a pressurized spacesuit. We applied the methodology to characterize PIco2 for the extravehicular mobility unit (EMU).METHODS: We suggested an automated and mathematical algorithm to find the end-tidal CO2 and the end of inspiration. We provided objective and standardized guidelines to identify acceptable breath traces, which are essential to accurate and reproducible calculation of the in-suit inhaled and exhaled partial pressure of CO2 (Pco2). The mouth guard-based method for measurement of inhaled and exhaled dry-gas Pco2 was described. We calculated all individual concentrations of PIco2 inhaled by 19 healthy subjects classified into 3 fitness groups. The transcutaneous Pco2 was monitored as a secondary measure to validate washout performance.RESULTS: Mean and standard deviation values for the data collection performance and the CO2 metrics were presented (e.g., minimum time weighted average Pco2 at suited workloads of resting, 1000, 2000, and 3000 (BTU h1) were 4.75 1.03, 8.09 1.39, 11.39 1.26, and 14.36 1.29 (mmHg s1). All CO2 metrics had a statistically significant association and all positive slopes with increasing metabolic rate. No significant differences in CO2 metrics were found between the three fitness groups.DISCUSSION: A standardized and automated methodology to calculate PIco2 exposure level is presented and applied to characterize CO2 washout in the EMU. The EMU has been operated successfully in over 400 extravehicular activities (EVAs) and is considered to provide acceptable CO2 washout performance. Results provide a basis for establishing verifiable Pco2 requirements for current and future EVA spacesuits.Kim KJ, Bekdash OS, Norcross JR, Conkin J, Garbino A, Fricker J, Young M, Abercromby AFJ. The partial pressure of inspired carbon dioxide exposure levels in the extravehicular mobility unit. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2020; 91(12):923931.

Propellant Off-Gassing and Implications for Triage and Rescue.

INTRODUCTION: Hypergolic propellants can be released in large amounts during space launch contingencies. Whether propellant-contaminated suit fabric poses a significant risk to rescue crews, due to off-gassing, has not been explored in detail. In this study, we addressed this issue experimentally, exposing space suit fabric to propellants (dinitrogen tetroxide [N2O4] and monomethyl hydrazine [MMH]).METHODS: The NASA Space Shuttle Program Advanced Crew Escape System II (ACES II) is similar to the NASA Orion Crew Survival System (OCSS) and was utilized here. Suit fabric was placed and sealed into permeation cells. Fabric exterior surface was exposed to constant concentrated hypergolics, simulating permeation and leakage. Fabric was rinsed, and permeation and off-gassing kinetics were measured. Experimental parameters were selected, simulating suited flight crewmembers during an evacuation transport without cabin air flow.RESULTS: The fabric allows for immediate permeation of liquid or vaporized MMH and N2O4. NO2 off-gassing never exceeded the AEGL-1 8-h level (acute exposure guideline level). In contrast, MMH off-gassing levels culminated in peak levels, approaching AEGL-2 10-min levels, paralleling the drying process of the fabric layers. DISCUSSION: Our findings demonstrate that MMH off-gassing is promoted by the drying of suit material in a delayed fashion, resulting in MMH concentrations having the potential for adverse health effects for flight and rescue crews. This indicates that shorter decontamination times could be implemented, provided that suit material is either kept moist to prevent off-gassing or removed prior to medical evacuation. Additional studies using OCSS or commercial crew suits might be needed in the future.Schwertz H, Roth LA, Woodard D. Propellant off-gassing and implications for triage and rescue. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2020; 91(12):956961.

A novel approach for establishing fitness standards for occupational task performance.

PURPOSE: To identify strength and performance thresholds below which task performance is impaired. METHODS: A new weighted suit system was used to manipulate strength-to-body-weight ratio during the performance of simulated space explorations tasks. Statistical models were used to evaluate various measures of muscle strength and performance on their ability to predict the probability that subjects could complete the tasks in an acceptable amount of time. Thresholds were defined as the point of greatest change in probability per change in the predictor variable. For each task, median time was used to define the boundary between "acceptable" and "unacceptable" completion times. RESULTS: Fitness thresholds for four space explorations tasks were identified using 23 physiological input variables. Area under receiver operator characteristic curves varied from a low of 0.68 to a high of 0.92. CONCLUSION: An experimental analog for altering strength-to-body weight combined with a probability-based statistical model for success was suitable for identifying thresholds for task performance below which tasks could either not be completed or time to completion was unacceptably high. These results provide data for strength recommendations for exploration mission ambulatory task performance. Furthermore, the approach can be used to identify thresholds for other areas where occupationally relevant tasks vary considerably.

Implications of Space Suit Injury Risk for Developing Computational Performance Models.

INTRODUCTION: Although a space suit is a technological feat sustaining human life outside the spacecraft, working in the space suit environment can lead to musculotendon and soft tissue injuries in astronauts. In this literature review, we consider the injury risk mechanisms for human-space suit interactions. We first present a review of space suit injury risk founded in empirical, statistical, and experimental studies. We then review efforts in computational modeling of a human and space suit. As the interpretation of models for injury risk has not previously been defined, a review is presented of biomechanical considerations of injury risk to the tissue and joints based on previously observed space suit injuries. A review of risk assessment in occupational health in the workplace is then presented, an adjacent area that informs relevant measures of consideration for human-space suit applications. Finally, we discuss how the work-to-date can inform continued efforts in minimizing risk of musculoskeletal injury to the human when using a space suit. From the literature, this review concludes space suits cause biomechanical alterations, inducing musculoskeletal injury. Combining occupational health kinematic constraints with computational models could enable a trade space evaluation on space suited biomechanics to reduce risk mechanisms. Future work, though, is required to enable computational models to be predictive of individual injury risk. Our findings show there are significant gaps in our current knowledge on tissue injuries that preclude biomechanical models from being used directly as an injury risk assessment model. This review identifies how risk factor monitoring and modeling will enable improved space suit design and evaluation.Stirling L, Arezes P, Anderson A. Implications of space suit injury risk for developing computational performance models. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2019; 90(6):553-565.

Hand Exo-Muscular System for Assisting Astronauts During Extravehicular Activities.

Human exploration of the Solar System is one of the most challenging objectives included in the space programs of the most important space agencies in the world. Since the Apollo program, and especially with the construction and operation of the International Space Station, extravehicular activities (EVA) have become an important part of space exploration. This article presents a soft hand exoskeleton designed to address one of the problems that astronauts face during spacewalks: hand fatigue caused by the pressurized EVA gloves. This device will reduce the stiffness of the spacesuit glove by counteracting the force exerted by the pressurized glove. To this end, the system makes use of a set of six flexible actuators, which use a shape memory alloy (SMA) wire as the actuating element. SMAs have been chosen because some of their features, such as low volume and high force-to-weight ratio, make them a suitable choice taking into account the constraints imposed by the use of the device in a spacesuit. Besides describing the different mechanical and electronic subsystems that compose the exoskeleton, this article presents a preliminary assessment of the device; several tests to characterize its nominal operation have been carried out, as well as position and force control tests to study its controllability and evaluate its suitability as a force assistive device.

INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS FOR PERSONAL RADIATION SHIELDING IN SPACE.

Personal radiation shielding is likely to play an important role in the strategy for radiation protection of future manned interplanetary missions. There is potential for the successful adoption of wearable shielding devices, readily available in case of accidental exposures or used for emergency operations in low-shielded areas of the habitat, particularly in case of solar particle events (SPEs). Based on optimization of available resources, conceptual models for radiation protection spacesuits have been proposed, with elements made of different materials, and the first prototype of a water-fillable garment was designed and manufactured in the framework of the PERSEO project, funded by the Italian Space Agency, leading to the successful test of such prototype for ease of use and wearability on-board the International Space Station. We present results of Monte Carlo calculations offering a proof-of-principle validation of the shielding efficacy of such prototype in different SPE environments and shielding conditions.

Objective Metrics Quantifying Fit and Performance in Spacesuit Assemblies.

INTRODUCTION: Human-spacesuit fit is not well understood, especially in relation to operational performance and injury risk. Current fit decisions use subjective feedback. This work developed and evaluated new metrics for quantifying fit and assessed metric sensitivity to changes in padding between the human and hip brief assembly (HBA).METHODS: Three subjects donned the Mark III (MKIII) spacesuit with three padding thicknesses between the lower body and HBA. Subjects performed a walking task with inertial measurement units on the thigh and shin of both the human and suit. For each step, cadence, human knee task range of motion (tRoM), difference in human and suit tROM (ΔtRoM), and the relative coordination metric (ρ) between the human-suit femur and tibia were computed.RESULTS: The MKIII significantly reduced user cadence by 20.4% and reduced tRoM by 16.5% during walking with subject-dependent changes due to added padding. In general, the addition of padding significantly altered ΔtRoM; however, variability did exist between subjects. Mixed-effect regressions of dynamic fit (ρ) reflect distinct positive spikes in ρ around heel strike (human-dominated motion) and negative dips following toe off (suit-dominated motion).DISCUSSION: There were mixed effects of padding on gait performance and dynamic fit measures. Differences in dynamic fit between subjects may be more reliant on alternate aspects of fit, such as suit component sizes and designs, than padding level. Subjective feedback supported quantitative observations, highlighting metric utility. Future work will explore the effects of suit sizing components on measures of fit and performance.Fineman RA, McGrath TM, Kelty-Stephen DG, Abercromby AFJ, Stirling LA. Objective metrics quantifying fit and performance in spacesuit assemblies. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2018; 89(11):985-995.

Oxygen exposures at NASA's Neutral Buoyancy Lab: a 20-year experience.

Astronauts training for extravehicular activity (EVA) operations can spend many hours submerged underwater in a pressurized suit, called an extravehicular mobility unit (EMU), exposed to pressures exceeding 2 atmospheres absolute (ATA). To minimize the risk of decompression sickness (DCS) a 46% nitrox mixture is used. This limits the nitrogen partial pressure, decreasing the risk of DCS. The trade-off with using a 46% nitrox mixture is the increased potential for oxygen toxicity, which can lead to severe neurologic symptoms including seizures. Suited runs, which typically expose astronauts of 0.9-1.1 ATA for longer than six hours, routinely exceed the recommendation for central nervous system oxygen toxicity limits (CNSOTL) published by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Fortunately, in over 50,000 hours of suited training dives spanning 20 years of EVA training operations at NASA's Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory (NBL) there has never been an occurrence of oxygen toxicity. This lends support to anecdotal sentiment among certain members of the hyperbaric community that the NOAA CNSOTL recommendations might be overly conservative, at least for the oxygen pressure and time regime in which NBL operates. The NOAA CNSOTL recommendations are the result of expert consensus with a focus on safety and do not necessarily reflect rigorous experimental evidence. The data from the NBL suited dive operations provide a foundation of evidence that can help inform the expert discussion on dive-related neurologic oxygen toxicity performance and overnight recovery in young, healthy males.

A water-filled garment to protect astronauts during interplanetary missions tested on board the ISS.

As manned spaceflights beyond low Earth orbit are in the agenda of Space Agencies, the concerns related to space radiation exposure of the crew are still without conclusive solutions. The risk of long-term detrimental health effects needs to be kept below acceptable limits, and emergency countermeasures must be planned to avoid the short-term consequences of exposure to high particle fluxes during hardly predictable solar events. Space habitat shielding cannot be the ultimate solution: the increasing complexity of future missions will require astronauts to protect themselves in low-shielded areas, e.g. during emergency operations. Personal radiation shielding is promising, particularly if using available resources for multi-functional shielding devices. In this work we report on all steps from the conception, design, manufacturing, to the final test on board the International Space Station (ISS) of the first prototype of a water-filled garment for emergency radiation shielding against solar particle events. The garment has a good shielding potential and comfort level. On-board water is used for filling and then recycled without waste. The successful outcome of this experiment represents an important breakthrough in space radiation shielding, opening to the development of similarly conceived devices and their use in interplanetary missions as the one to Mars.

Surgical Space Suits Increase Particle and Microbiological Emission Rates in a Simulated Surgical Environment.

BACKGROUND: The role of space suits in the prevention of orthopedic prosthetic joint infection remains unclear. Recent evidence suggests that space suits may in fact contribute to increased infection rates, with bioaerosol emissions from space suits identified as a potential cause. This study aimed to compare the particle and microbiological emission rates (PER and MER) of space suits and standard surgical clothing. METHODS: A comparison of emission rates between space suits and standard surgical clothing was performed in a simulated surgical environment during 5 separate experiments. Particle counts were analyzed with 2 separate particle counters capable of detecting particles between 0.1 and 20 µm. An Andersen impactor was used to sample bacteria, with culture counts performed at 24 and 48 hours. RESULTS: Four experiments consistently showed statistically significant increases in both PER and MER when space suits are used compared with standard surgical clothing. One experiment showed inconsistent results, with a trend toward increases in both PER and MER when space suits are used compared with standard surgical clothing. CONCLUSION: Space suits cause increased PER and MER compared with standard surgical clothing. This finding provides mechanistic evidence to support the increased prosthetic joint infection rates observed in clinical studies.