Las vacunas en el siglo XIX / No disponible

Durante la mayor parte del siglo XIX, la única vacuna disponible fue la antivariólica, utilizada desde 1796. Casi un siglo después, en la década de los 80 del siglo XIX, las aportaciones de Pasteur contribuyeron decisivamente a mejorar la situación, al descubrir, en 1885, la vacuna antirrábica: ese mismo año, Jaime Ferrán descubrió la vacuna anticolérica, la primera obtenida frente a una enfermedad bacteriana. En la década siguiente, los avances logrados permitieron disponer de dos nuevas vacunas, y así finalizó el siglo, con cinco nuevas vacunas descubiertas: frente a la viruela, la rabia, el cólera, la fiebre tifoidea y la peste. Eran los primeros pasos de una investigación que en el siglo XX tendría un desarrollo extraordinario en la prevención de distintas enfermedades infecciosas y en la reducción de la morbilidad y mortalidad de algunas enfermedades que habían sido un azote para la humanidad en los siglos anteriores

The only vaccine used for the most part of the XIX century was that of the vaccine against smallpox, used since 1796. In the decade of the 80s of the XIX century, almost a century after its discovery, Pasteur's research allowed to obtain the vaccine against rabies. Jaime Ferrán discovered the vaccine against cholera in that very same year, first vaccine used against a disease caused by bacteria. New vaccines were discovered in the following decade bringing to five the number of vaccines known at the end of that century. That allowed immunization against small-pox, cholera, rabies, typhoid fever and plague. Thus, a period began in the XX century, that would bring an extraordinary development in the prevention of several infectious diseases. Along with it came a substantial reduction in the morbidity and mortality that some of these diseases had caused humanity du-ring the centuries before

From Bombay to Rio de Janeiro: the circulation of knowledge and the establishment of the Manguinhos laboratory, 1894-1902. / De Bombaim ao Rio de Janeiro: circulação de conhecimento e a criação do Laboratório de Manguinhos, 1894-1902.

In order to understand the 1900 establishment of the Federal Serum Therapy Institute of Manguinhos and its earliest scientific work, we must analyze the circulation of knowledge and international disputes surrounding antiplague serums and vaccines. This article discusses the development of the first antiplague serum, in Paris, and the trials conducted in India, which started in 1897. It also examines the invention of an antiplague vaccine in Bombay around the same time and the ensuing controversy involving it and the French serum. The article then explores the pathways by which these objects reached Brazil and also looks at how local issues there meshed with the international scientific dispute, ultimately justifying reconfigurations of the two objects in Rio de Janeiro.

Para se compreender a fundação, em 1900, e os primeiros trabalhos científicos do Instituto Soroterápico Federal, é necessário analisar a circulação de conhecimento e a disputa internacional envolvendo os soros antipestosos e as vacinas antipestosas. O artigo discute a criação do primeiro soro antipestoso, em Paris, e os testes realizados a partir de 1897 na Índia. Paralelamente, examina a invenção da vacina antipestosa na mesma época em Bombaim e a oposição construída entre ela e o soro antipestoso francês. Em seguida, observa os diferentes caminhos pelos quais esses objetos chegaram ao Brasil e como questões locais se conectaram à disputa científica internacional e justificaram, no Rio de Janeiro, reconfigurações em torno desses dois objetos.

De Bombaim ao Rio de Janeiro: circulação de conhecimento e a criação do Laboratório de Manguinhos, 1894-1902 / From Bombay to Rio de Janeiro: the circulation of knowledge and the establishment of the Manguinhos laboratory, 1894-1902

Resumo Para se compreender a fundação, em 1900, e os primeiros trabalhos científicos do Instituto Soroterápico Federal, é necessário analisar a circulação de conhecimento e a disputa internacional envolvendo os soros antipestosos e as vacinas antipestosas. O artigo discute a criação do primeiro soro antipestoso, em Paris, e os testes realizados a partir de 1897 na Índia. Paralelamente, examina a invenção da vacina antipestosa na mesma época em Bombaim e a oposição construída entre ela e o soro antipestoso francês. Em seguida, observa os diferentes caminhos pelos quais esses objetos chegaram ao Brasil e como questões locais se conectaram à disputa científica internacional e justificaram, no Rio de Janeiro, reconfigurações em torno desses dois objetos.

Abstract In order to understand the 1900 establishment of the Federal Serum Therapy Institute of Manguinhos and its earliest scientific work, we must analyze the circulation of knowledge and international disputes surrounding antiplague serums and vaccines. This article discusses the development of the first antiplague serum, in Paris, and the trials conducted in India, which started in 1897. It also examines the invention of an antiplague vaccine in Bombay around the same time and the ensuing controversy involving it and the French serum. The article then explores the pathways by which these objects reached Brazil and also looks at how local issues there meshed with the international scientific dispute, ultimately justifying reconfigurations of the two objects in Rio de Janeiro.

From empiricism to rational design: a personal perspective of the evolution of vaccine development.

Vaccination, which is the most effective medical intervention that has ever been introduced, originated from the observation that individuals who survived a plague or smallpox would not get the disease twice. To mimic the protective effects of natural infection, Jenner - and later Pasteur - inoculated individuals with attenuated or killed disease-causing agents. This empirical approach inspired a century of vaccine development and the effective prophylaxis of many infectious diseases. From the 1980s, several waves of new technologies have enabled the development of novel vaccines that would not have been possible using the empirical approach. The technological revolution in the field of vaccination is now continuing, and it is delivering novel and safer vaccines. In this Timeline article, we provide our views on the transition from empiricism to rational vaccine design.

[The pioneer of cholera vaccine and plague vaccine-Haffkine].

Waldemar Mordecai Haffkine (1860 - 1930), a Jewish bacteriologist, was born in Odessa, Ukraine. He got the doctor's degree of science of Odessa University in 1884 and entered the Pasteur Institute in 1889. Then he successively committed himself to developing cholera vaccine and plague vaccine. After testing them to himself, he set up extensive field trials in British India to prove the safety and efficacy. Further inoculation saved many lives. Later he was accused for the contamination of plague vaccine in Mulkowal Disaster in 1902, and finally exonerated in 1907. Haffkine was hailed as "Jewish Jenner".

[The American bacteriologist: Dr. Meyer].

Karl F. Meyer who was born in Switzerland was American famous bacteriologist of 20th century. During the World War II, Dr. Meyer urged the U. S. military to take positive reply measures against the bacteria war started by Japanese army and achieved significant accomplishments in the preventive and therapeutic theory of plague as well as the manufacture of plague vaccine. After the World War II, Meyer devoted to the scientific field of plague prevention and made great achievements in the area of animal diseases and public health. In 1951, he received the Lasker Award of America.

Protective immunity against plague.

Plague, an infectious disease that reached catastrophic proportions during three pandemics, continues to be a legitimate public health concern worldwide. Although antibiotic therapy for the causative agent Yersinia pestis is available, pharmaceutical supply limitations, multi-drug resistance from natural selection as well as malicious bioengineering are a reality. Consequently, plague vaccinology is a priority for biodefense research. Development of a multi-subunit vaccine with Fraction 1 and LcrV as protective antigens seems to be receiving the most attention. However, LcrV has been shown to cause immune suppression and Y. pestis mutants lacking F1 expression are thought to be fully virulent in nature and in animal experiments. The LcrV variant, rV10, retains the well documented protective antigenic properties of LcrV but with diminished inhibitory effects on the immune system. More research is required to examine the molecular mechanisms of vaccine protection afforded by surface protein antigens and to decipher the host mechanisms responsible for vaccine success.

Waldemar Mordecai Haffkine, CIE (1860-1930): prophylactic vaccination against cholera and bubonic plague in British India.

Waldemar Mordecai Haffkine developed an anticholera vaccine at the Pasteur Institute, Paris, in 1892. From the results of field trials in India from 1893 to 1896, he has been credited as having carried out the first effective prophylactic vaccination for a bacterial disease in man. When the plague pandemic reached Bombay, Haffkine became bacteriologist to the Government of (British) India (1896-1915). He soon produced an effective antiplague vaccine and large inoculation schemes were commenced. In 1902 19 people in Mulkowal (Punjab) died from tetanus poisoning as a consequence of antiplague vaccination. Haffkine was blamed unjustly and exonerated only in 1907, following a campaign spear-headed by Ronald Ross. In India the stigma remained. In 1925 in tribute to the great bacteriologist, the Bombay Government renamed the laboratory as the Haffkine Institute. The Haffkine Biopharmaceutical Corporation Ltd and the Haffkine Institute for Training, Research and Testing in Mumbai continue to be important centres for public health.

The anti-plague system and the Soviet biological warfare program.

The USSR possessed a unique national public health system that included an agency named "anti-plague system." Its mission was to protect the country from highly dangerous diseases of either natural or laboratory etiology. During the 1960s, the anti-plague system became the lead agency of a program to defend against biological warfare, codenamed Project 5. This responsibility grew and by the middle 1970s came to include undertaking tasks for the offensive biological warfare program, codenamed Ferment. This article describes the anti-plague system's activities relevant to both aspects of the Soviet Union's biological warfare program, offense and defense, and analyzes its contributions to each.

[Attempts to inoculate against plague in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries]. / Pogingen tot enting tegen pest in de achttiende en negentiende eeuw.

In the middle of the 18th century, inoculation against smallpox became more and more common, and attempts were also made to test the same principle, viz. inoculation with the agents causing the disease for other human and animal diseases. It was tried for rinderpest, measles and sheep pox. In addition, there were some suggestions for using the principle against the plague. The disease had disappeared from Western Europe by this time, but still raged in eastern countries, such as Russia. However, the government rejected the proposal for trial inoculations in Moscow. During the first half of the 19th century, the plague was still widespread in the Middle East, where different European doctors worked on combatting it. The first documented inoculation trial was carried out by a certain Mr. Whyte, an English physician who inoculated himself and four assistants in 1801. All five died a few days later. In the following years, more tests were carried out, inter alia: in 1802, by Desgenettes, the chief physician of the French army in the Middle East; in 1803, by Eusebio Valli, an Italian physician in Constantinople; in 1818 and 1819 by Sola, a Spanish physician in Tangier. However, none of these tests produced clear results. During the epidemic in Egypt in the 1830s, further inoculation tests were carried out by a group of French plague specialists with the main aim of establishing whether the plague could be transmitted between humans. These tests did not result in any clear conclusions either. Following the discovery of the plague bacillus at the end of the 19th century, a number of different live and dead vaccines were developed, and were also used in endemic areas, but the level of efficiency has never become very clear. This is not really surprising, as even the disease itself often does not provide strong immunity, and reinfections are by no means uncommon.