Genetically modified crops: Brazilian law and overview.

In Brazil, the first genetically modified (GM) crop was released in 1998, and it is estimated that 84, 78, and 50% of crop areas containing soybean, corn, and cotton, respectively, were transgenic in 2012. This intense and rapid adoption rate confirms that the choice to use technology has been the main factor in developing national agriculture. Thus, this review focuses on understanding these dynamics in the context of farmers, trade relations, and legislation. To accomplish this goal, a survey was conducted using the database of the National Cultivar Registry and the National Service for Plant Variety Protection of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Supply [Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento (MAPA)] between 1998 and October 13, 2013. To date, 36 events have been released: five for soybeans, 18 for corn, 12 for cotton, and one for beans. From these events, 1395 cultivars have been developed and registered: 582 for soybean, 783 for corn and 30 for cotton. Monsanto owns 73.05% of the technologies used to develop these cultivars, while the Dow AgroScience - DuPont partnership and Syngenta have 16.34 and 4.37% ownership, respectively. Thus, the provision of transgenic seeds by these companies is an oligopoly supported by legislation. Moreover, there has been a rapid replacement of conventional crops by GM crops, whose technologies belong almost exclusively to four multinational companies, with the major ownership by Monsanto. These results reflect a warning to the government of the increased dependence on multinational corporations for key agricultural commodities.

Aflatoxin regulations in a network of global maize trade.

Worldwide, food supplies often contain unavoidable contaminants, many of which adversely affect health and hence are subject to regulations of maximum tolerable levels in food. These regulations differ from nation to nation, and may affect patterns of food trade. We soughtto determine whether there is an association between nations' food safety regulations and global food trade patterns, with implications for public health and policymaking. We developed a network model of maize trade around the world. From maize import/export data for 217 nations from 2000-2009, we calculated basic statistics on volumes of trade; then examined how regulations of aflatoxin, a common contaminant of maize, are similar or different between pairs of nations engaging in significant amounts of maize trade. Globally, market segregation appears to occur among clusters of nations. The United States is at the center of one cluster; European countries make up another cluster with hardly any maize trade with the US; and Argentina, Brazil, and China export maize all over the world. Pairs of nations trading large amounts of maize have very similar aflatoxin regulations: nations with strict standards tend to trade maize with each other, while nations with more relaxed standards tend to trade maize with each other. Rarely among the top pairs of maize-trading nations do total aflatoxin standards (standards based on the sum of the levels of aflatoxins B(1), B(2), G(1), and G(2)) differ by more than 5 µg/kg. These results suggest that, globally, separate maize trading communities emerge; and nations tend to trade with other nations that have very similar food safety standards.

We're living on corn!

A review of Michael Pollan's The omnivore's dilemma: a natural history of four meals and Bill McKibben's Deep economy: the wealth of communities and the durable future.

Ethanol production: energy, economic, and environmental losses.

The prime focus of ethanol production from corn is to replace the imported oil used in American vehicles, without expending more fossil energy in ethanol production than is produced as ethanol energy. In a thorough and up-to-date evaluation of all the fossil energy costs of ethanol production from corn, every step in the production and conversion process must be included. In this study, 14 energy inputs in average U.S. corn production are included. Then, in the fermentation/distillation operation, 9 more identified fossil fuel inputs are included. Some energy and economic credits are given for the by-products, including dried distillers grains (DDG). Based on all the fossil energy inputs, a total of 1.43 kcal fossil energy is expended to produced 1 kcal ethanol. When the energy value of the DDG, based on the feed value of the DDG as compared to that of soybean meal, is considered, the energy cost of ethanol production is reduced slightly, to 1.28 kcal fossil energy input per 1 kcal ethanol produced. Several proethanol investigators have overlooked various energy inputs in U.S. corn production, including farm machinery, processing machinery, and the use of hybrid corn. In other studies, unrealistic, low energy costs were attributed to such inputs as nitrogen fertilizer, insecticides, and herbicides. Controversy continues concerning the energy and economic credits that should be assigned to the by-products. The U.S. Department of Energy reports that 17.0 billion L ethanol was produced in 2005. This represents only less than 1% of total oil use in the U.S. These yields are based on using about 18% of total U.S. corn production and 18% of cornland. Because the production of ethanol requires large inputs of both oil and natural gas in production, the U.S. is importing both oil and natural gas to produce ethanol. Furthermore, the U.S. Government is spending about dollar 3 billion annually to subsidize ethanol production, a subsidy of dollar 0.79/L ethanol produced. With the subsidy, plus the cost of production, the cost of ethanol is calculated to be dollar 1.21/L. The subsidy for a liter of ethanol is 45-times greater than the subsidy per liter of gasoline. The environmental costs associated with producing ethanol are significant but have been ignored by most investigators in terms of energy and economics. The negative environmental impacts on cropland, and freshwater, as well as air pollution and public health, have yet to be carefully assessed. These environmental costs in terms of energy and economics should be calculated and included in future ethanol analyses. General concern has been expressed about taking 18% of U.S. corn, and more in the future, to produce ethanol for burning in automobiles instead of using the corn as food for the many malnourished people in the world. The World Health Organization reports that more than 3.7 billion humans are currently malnourished in the world--the largest number ever in history.

Maternal micronutrient status and decreased growth of Zambian infants born during and after the maize price increases resulting from the southern African drought of 2001-2002.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects on maternal micronutrient status and infant growth of the increased maize prices that resulted from the southern African drought of 2001-2002. DESIGN: Longitudinal cohort study. SETTING: A maternal and child health clinic in Lusaka, Zambia. SUBJECTS: Maternal and infant health and nutrition data and maternal plasma were being collected for a study of breast-feeding and postpartum health. Samples and data were analysed according to whether they were collected before (June to December 2001), during (January 2002 to April 2003) or after (May 2003 to January 2004) the period of increased maize price. Season and maternal HIV status were controlled for in analyses. RESULTS: Maize price increases were associated with decreased maternal plasma vitamin A during pregnancy (P = 0.028) and vitamin E postpartum (P = 0.042), with the lowest values among samples collected after May 2003 (vitamin A: 0.96 micromol l(-1), 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.84-1.09, n = 38; vitamin E: 30.8 micromol mmol(-1) triglycerides, 95% CI 27.2-34.8, n = 64) compared with before January 2002 (vitamin A: 1.03 micromol l(-1), 95% CI 0.93-1.12, n = 104; vitamin E: 38.9 micromol mmol(-1) triglycerides, 95% CI 34.5-43.8, n = 47). There were no significant effects of sampling date on maternal weight, haemoglobin or acute-phase proteins and only marginal effects on infant weight. Infant length at 6 and 16 weeks of age decreased progressively throughout the study (P-values for time of data collection were 0.51 at birth, 0.051 at 6 weeks and 0.026 at 16 weeks). CONCLUSIONS: The results show modest effects of the maize price increases on maternal micronutrient status. The most serious consequence of the price increases is likely to be the increased stunting among infants whose mothers experienced high maize prices while pregnant. During periods of food shortages it might be advisable to provide micronutrient supplements even to those who are less food-insecure.

An assessment of the effects of crude oil pollution on soil properties, germination and growth of maize (Zea mays) using two crude types--Forcados light and Escravos light.

The effect of crude oil pollution on soil properties, germination and height of maize (Zea mays) was investigated under natural environment in three separate pot experiments. Two crude oil types--Forcados light and Escravos light were used. In Experiment 1, the effect of crude oil application on germination using high pollution levels of 5, 15, 25 and 40 mL kg(-1) of soil was assessed. In Experiment 2, the effect of crude oil application on maize plant height using the same pollution levels was assessed. The last experiment (Experiment 3) was used to test for the effects of crude oil application on maize plant height using lower levels of pollution (1.0, 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5 mL kg(-1) of soil). Soil samples were collected before, during and after the experiment and analyzed for some physical and chemical properties. Results obtained showed variation in chemical properties of soil. % organic matter increased from 1.34 to 2.62% in polluted soils. Available P decreased from 15.00 ppm in control to between 7.34 and 5.42 in soils polluted with 'high' levels of crude oil. Statistical analysis of height data showed that crude oil inhibited the growth of maize at high pollution levels. High levels of pollution also inhibited germination and for Escravos light there was no germination at 40 mL kg(-1) soil level of crude oil pollution.

Changes in availability and nutritive value of different corn residue parts as affected by early and late grazing seasons.

Two early- (EG) and two late-season (LG) corn-residue grazing trials were conducted either from October to December or from December to March (1987 and 1988) using both nonirrigated and irrigated fields. Initial availability, disappearance, and nutritive value of different corn residue components were estimated. Stocking rates were 1.97, 2.20, 1.36, and 2.58 animals/ha for the two EG and LG nonirrigated fields (NIF), respectively, and 3.96 animals/ha for EG irrigated fields (IF). Samples were collected three times throughout the grazing period. In one of the LG trials, samples were collected 30 d before the grazing season began for measurement of weathering damage. Composite samples were analyzed for CP, ADF, ADIN, and in vitro DM (IVDMD) and OM (IVOMD) disappearance. Ruminal escape protein (EP) content was assessed using a Dacron bag technique. Weathering reduced (P less than .02) the amount of leaf blade available by 42% during a period of 30 d before the LG season in Trial 2. Grain, husks, and leaf blades disappeared to the greatest degree (P less than .05) during either grazing season. More than 90% of the grain disappeared during the first 30 d, regardless of grazing season. Overall IVDMD for NIF grain, husks, leaf blades, stems, and cobs across the EG and LG trials were 98.6, 68.4, 42.0, 41.0, and 48.1%, respectively. Corn residue fractions from IF had a lower (P less than .05) IVDMD than did NIF fractions. Grain from NIF was 20% higher (DM basis) in EP than grain from IF (Trial 2). Grain left in the field was the most important source of CP and EP for calves grazing corn residues. Husks and leaf blades were selected by calves; husks were the roughage fraction with the highest nutritive value.