Organoid based personalized medicine: from bench to bedside.

Three-dimensional cultured organoids have become a powerful in vitro research tool that preserves genetic, phenotypic and behavioral trait of in vivo organs, which can be established from both pluripotent stem cells and adult stem cells. Organoids derived from adult stem cells can be established directly from diseased epithelium and matched normal tissues, and organoids can also be genetically manipulated by CRISPR-Cas9 technology. Applications of organoids in basic research involve the modeling of human development and diseases, including genetic, infectious and malignant diseases. Importantly, accumulating evidence suggests that biobanks of patient-derived organoids for many cancers and cystic fibrosis have great value for drug development and personalized medicine. In addition, organoids hold promise for regenerative medicine. In the present review, we discuss the applications of organoids in the basic and translational research.