The COVID-19 pandemic in sub-Saharan Africa: The significance of presumed immune sufficiency

A novel coronavirus known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was first reported in China in 2019 and later ignited a global pandemic. Contrary to expectations, the effect of the pandemic was not as devastating to Africa and its young population compared to the rest of the world. To provide insight into the possible reasons for the presumed immune sufficiency to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Africa, this review critically examines literature published from 2020 onwards on the dynamics of COVID-19 infection and immunity and how other prevalent infectious diseases in Africa might have influenced the outcome of COVID-19. Studies characterising the immune response in patients with COVID-19 show that the correlates of protection in infected individuals are T-cell responses against the SARSCoV-2 spike protein and neutralising titres of immunoglobin G and immunoglobin A antibodies. In some other studies, substantial pre-existing T-cell reactivity to SARS-CoV-2 was detected in many people from diverse geographical locations without a history of exposure. Certain studies also suggest that innate immune memory, which offers protection against reinfection with the same or another pathogen, might influence the severity of COVID-19. In addition, an initial analysis of epidemiological data showed that COVID-19 cases were not severe in some countries that implemented universal Bacillus Calmette­Guerin (BCG) vaccination policies, thus supporting the potential of BCG vaccination to boost innate immunity. The high burden of infectious diseases and the extensive vaccination campaigns previously conducted in Africa could have induced specific and non-specific protective immunity to infectious pathogens in Africans.

Knowledge, fear, and willingness to accept covid-19 vaccine among residents of Gere lga, Borno state, Nigeria

Background: Coronavirus (COVID-19) which emerged from Wuhan, Hubei province, China has gained tremendous attention. It has caused huge morbidity and mortality as well as a visible psychological burden on communities across the globe. Knowledge, fear, and willingness to accept COVID-19 Vaccine are reported to be serious factors in the fight against the disease in many communities for which Jere LGA, Maiduguri, Borno State, may not be an exception. Objectives: To determine the Knowledge, fear, and willingness to accept the COVID-19 Vaccine among the residents of Jere LGA, Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria. Methodology:Adescriptive cross-sectional study design was adopted for this study. Atotal of 384 questionnaires were administered in this study. However, only 367 questionnaires were retrieved for analysis. The sampling technique adopted for this study was multistate sampling techniques. Results: The findings of the study revealed that the majority (67.8%) of the respondents had poor knowledge of the COVID-19 vaccine. On the question of COVID-19 fear, 50.1% had moderate fear. Regarding the vaccination status of the respondents, 93.5% did not receive the COVID-19 vaccine jab and 6.5% did receive the vaccine as of the time of this study. Of the 367 respondents, 78.2% were unwilling to accept the COVID-19 vaccine, if made available to them. Conclusions: The study concluded that there is poor knowledge, and moderate fear and the majority of respondents were unwilling to receive or accept the COVID-19 vaccine in the study area. Therefore, this study recommends a comprehensive awareness campaign on the importance of the COVID-19 vaccine at the community level.

Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 immunoglobulin G antibody during COVID-19 pandemic in Fayoum District, Egypt: a community-based pilot survey

Introduction: controlling the worldwide pandemic, coronavirus disease (COVID-19), could be impossible due to the hesitancy about the available vaccines and the difficulty to implement strict restrictions. Little information is available about herd immunity in the highly vulnerable region of North East Africa, Egypt. Objectives: to assess the seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 during the pandemic in one of the highly vulnerable populations in Egypt, Fayoum district of Fayoum Governorate. Additionally, to assess the predictive value of symptoms and other associated risk factors towards a positive COVID-19 test. Methods: in this cross-sectional community-based pilot study, immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies that are specific for the SARS-CoV-2 spike (S1-RBD) protein were tested during the period from February 2021 to July 2021. Results: out of 155 participants, 60.6% were SARS-CoV-2 seropositive. Out of symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals, 76.5% and 56.2% were seropositive, respectively. Surprisingly, only one individual had received the COVID-19 vaccine. Previous history of COVID-19; such as symptoms and gender are statistically significant predictors of high seroconversion independent of age, comorbidities, and level of education. Conclusion: this study which disclosed unexpectedly high SARS-CoV-2 seroconversion among the Egyptians, might provide a clear insight into COVID-19 transmission patterns and state of immunity. Further study with a larger sample size on a large scale is required to represent the whole local population.

COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy and its Reasons in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: A Cross-Sectional Study

BACKGROUND: Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) vaccine hesitancy becomes the major bottleneck to the global healthcare system in minimizing the spread of the virus. This study aimed at assessing COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and its reasons among residents of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. METHODS: A community-based cross-sectional survey was conducted between May 16 to 29, 2021 in purposively selected four districts of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. A structured questionnaire was developed and then designed on Google Forms platforms to collect data from study participants after obtaining a verbal consent form. A total of 422 study participants were included in the survey. Data were entered into Microsoft Excel and then exported to the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25 for analysis. RESULTS: Face masks and alcohol hand rub/ sanitizer are used by 50. 7 and 24.9% of respondents when required. COVID-19 was thought to have been generated by humans by a substantial percentage of study participants (38.2%). About half (50.7%) and 24.9% of respondents use face masks and alcohol hand rub/sanitizer always when it is required, respectively. A large number of study participants (38.2%) believed that origin of COVID-19 is man-made. Overall, 242 (57.4%) of study participants reported COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy. Fear of vaccine side effects (49.6%) was the most common reason for hesitancy. Doubt about its effectiveness (33.9%), not having enough information about the COVID-19 vaccine, preferring another way of protection, and unreliable of the vaccine (due to its short development period) were also the most frequently mentioned reasons for not receiving the COVID-19 vaccine. CONCLUSIONS: COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy rate was high in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia during the study period. Fear of side effects, doubts about its effectiveness, and not having enough information about the COVID-19 vaccine were major reasons for hesitancy. Continuous awareness creation to the community on the importance of vaccination is warranted by health professionals and healthcare cadres.

COVID-19: Virology, Pathogenesis and Potential Therapeutics

Nowadays, the coronavirus epidemic represents a major threat to the human being, represented by great numbers of deaths and wide world life disrupt. COVID-19 virus, is not only representing a threat to the life of human being, but also to the economic activities that nearly stopped in many countries due to the partial to complete closure of life activities in order to control the wide spread of virus infections. In these extraordinary and unprecedented critical times of human being life, it is essential to review and discus the virus epidemic in trial to suggest an idea that might be beneficial to researchers to find out an exit from this dark tunnel and to prevent as possible epidemic recurrence. Many attempts of management protocols and trials all over the world, nearly failed until now to control the wide spread and the high incidence of morbidity and mortality of this viral infection. In this review, we highlight the virology and pathogenesis of epidemic and possible used therapeutics in a simplified and concise form to be easily understood and available for healthcare members and even general population. This might help in control and eradication of the current epidemic

Using signalling theory to assess the Government of Ghana's risk communication during the COVID-19 pandemic

Background: The proliferation of information through social media and on other communication networks during the corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) era altered information transfer in many countries. The content of the messages from government officials, media coverage and alternative narratives, affected the level of compliance in adhering to the various health protocols amongst the public. Aim: This article aimed to determine the relationship between the message used, media coverage, alternative narratives, the public's attitude towards staying at home and their commitment to stay at home during the COVID-19 pandemic campaign period in Ghana. Setting: A total of 352 respondents was sampled from the Kumasi metropolis. Methods: A survey sample strategy and a convenience sampling technique were used while structural equation modelling with Partial least square (PLS) version 3.0 was used for the analysis. Results: The study revealed that the nature of media coverage employed and the alternative narratives had a significant positive effect on the attitude of the respondents, whilst the content of the message had insignificant effects on the attitude of the public. Finally, the attitude of the people had a significant positive influence on their respective commitment to stay home. Conclusion: Developing countries in Africa need to fight pandemics using purely subsidised health officials or directorates rather than have government-appointed health experts and officials spearheading activities during a pandemic.

Coronaviruses: a review of their properties and diversity

Human coronaviruses, which hitherto were causative agents of mild respiratory diseases of man, have recently become one of the most important groups of pathogens of humans the world over. In less than two decades, three members of the group, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus (CoV), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)-CoV, and SARS-COV-2, have emerged causing disease outbreaks that affected millions and claimed the lives of thousands of people. In 2017, another coronavirus, the swine acute diarrhea syndrome (SADS) coronavirus (SADS-CoV) emerged in animals killing over 24,000 piglets in China. Because of the medical and veterinary importance of coronaviruses, we carried out a review of available literature and summarized the current information on their properties and diversity. Coronaviruses are single-stranded RNA viruses with some unique characteristics such as the possession of a very large nucleic acid, high infidelity of the RNA-dependent polymerase, and high rate of mutation and recombination in the genome. They are susceptible to a number of physical agents and several chemical agents used for disinfection procedures in hospitals and laboratories. They exhibit considerable genetic and host diversity, causing diseases of gastrointestinal and respiratory system in a wide range of vertebrate hosts including humans. The high prevalence of coronaviruses in domestic and wild animals, especially bats and birds, and the propensity for their genomes to undergo mutation and recombination may lead to emergence of new coronaviruses that could pose a serious threat to human and animal health

Laboratory organisation and management of SARS-CoV-2 infection in Niger, West Africa

Background: As the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic unfolds, laboratory services have been identified as key to its containment. This article outlines the laboratory organisation and management and control interventions in Niger.Intervention: The capitol city of Niger, Niamey, adopted a 'National COVID-19 Emergency Preparedness and Response Plan' to strengthen the preparedness of the country for the detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2. Laboratory training and diagnostic capacity building were supported by existing active clinical and research laboratories for more rapid and practicable responses. The National Reference Laboratory for Respiratory Viruses located at the Centre de Recherche Médicale et Sanitaire was designated as the reference centre for COVID-19 testing. The national plan for COVID-19 testing is being gradually adopted in other regions of the country in response to the rapidly evolving COVID-19 emergency and to ensure a more rapid turn-around time.Lessons learnt:After the decentralisation of COVID-19 testing to other regions of the country, turn-around times were reduced from 48­72 h to 12­24 h. Reducing turn-around times allowed Niger to reduce the length of patients' stays in hospitals and isolation facilities. Shortages in testing capacity must be anticipated and addressed. In an effort to reduce risk of shortages and increase availability of reagents and consumables, Niamey diversified real-time reverse transcriptase­polymerase chain reaction kits for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 detection.Recommendations: Continued investment in training programmes and laboratory strategy is needed in order to strengthen Niger's laboratory capacity against the outbreak

Clinical and socio-demographic profile of the first 33 COVID-19 cases treated at dedicated treatment center in Ethiopia

BACKGROUND:Severe respiratory tract infection caused by family of Corona viruses has become world pandemic. The purpose of this study was to describe the first few COVID 19 cases in Ethiopia. METHOD: Descriptive study was conducted on the first 33 consecutive RT-PCR confirmed COVID 19 cases diagnosed and managed at Ekka-Kotebe COVID Treatment Center in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. RESULT: The median age of the cases was 36 years. Cough, headache and fever were the most frequent symptoms. Diarrhea, sore throats, loss of taste and/or smell sensation were among the rare symptoms. Most (84.8%) had mild to moderate disease, and 15.2%(n=5) were critical at the time of admission. Among the five ICU admissions, four patients required invasive mechanical ventilation. Thirty cases were discharged after two pairs of nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal samples turned negative for SARS CoV2. Three cases from the ICU died while on mechanical ventilator. The age of the two deaths was 65 years, and one was 60 years. With the exception of three, all cases were either imported from abroad or had contact with confirmed cases. CONCLUSION: Most of our patients were in the younger age group with male predominance and few with comorbidities. Cough was the commonest symptom followed by headache and fever. As it was in the early stage of the pandemic, observation of more cases in the future will reveal further clinical and demographic profiles of COVID-19 cases in Ethiopia