Effect of physical stresses on survivability and post-exposure antibiotic susceptibility of coliforms in environmental waters and wastewaters

Background: Coliform bacteria are majorly introduced into water bodies (river and wastewater) as a result of faecal pollution, agricultural run-offs and several anthropogenic activities. Despite the effectiveness of water treatment methods, pathogens still persist in water; hence the relevance of assessing the ability of these pathogens to survive the lethal actions of physical stresses and the possible impact on antibiotic susceptibility pattern of the organisms. Methodology: The survivability of Escherichia coli strains (NCM3722, FAP1 and ST2747), Enterobacter cloacae GGT036 and Shigella sonnei 53G was assessed in environmental and waste waters for 21 days. The effect of three treatment regimens (UV radiation, solar radiation and boiling) on the survival of the coliforms was evaluated. Also, the antibiogram of the isolates post­UV exposure was assayed. Results: Although there was significant reduction (≥ 3-log) in the population of the bacteria overtime, all the coliforms survived in the waters for 21 days. The effect of UV radiation was significant on all organisms (> 3 log reductions). Solar radiation for 60 minutes had significantly lesser effect than boiling for 15 minutes. Surviving cells of all isolates demonstrated multiple drug-resistance post exposure to UV radiation. Conclusion: This study revealed the ability of coliforms to persist in waters after treatment and proves that UV radiation may not be effective in attenuation of antibiotic resistance

Survey on visual acuity among intra-city commercial vehicle drivers in Ibadan, southwestern Nigeria

Driving is recognized to be a visually intensive task and accordingly legal minimum standard of vision required for all motorists is stipulated. This study was carried out to find out how many commercial drivers in Ibadan North L.G.A met minimum legal requirement for driving in Nigeria. A cross sectional descriptive study was conducted among 340 commercial vehicle drivers selected by multistage sampling from eight transport stations (motor parks) in the city. Visual impairment was defined as vision acuity (VA) in both eyes which is below 3/18 but above 3/60 (VA <6/18≥3/60) and was assessed with the Snellen's chart. All participants have valid driving licenses. One sixth [52, (15.3%)] have visual acuity below 6/9 and 18 (5.3%) have visual impairment (VA <6/18≥3/60). More of those drivers aged 40 years and more had visual impairment compared to the younger drivers (P<0.05). These findings suggest that regulatory standards for licensing drivers are being circumvented by some of the drivers. Mechanisms for ensuring compliance to the regulatory standards especially visual acuity is therefore recommended

Factors Leading to Poor Water Sanitation Hygiene among Primary School going Children in Chitungwiza

Although the world has progressed in the area of water and sanitation; more than 2.3 billion people still live without access to sanitation facilities and some are unable to practice basic hygiene. Access to water and basic sanitation has deteriorated in Chitungwiza and children are at risk of developing illness and missing school due to the deterioration. We sought to investigate the predisposing; enabling and reinforcing factors that are causally related to water- and sanitation- related hygiene practices among school going children. A random sample of 400 primary school children (196 males; 204 females) in four schools in Chitungwiza town; Zimbabwe was interviewed. Behavioural factors were assessed through cross examination of the PROCEED PRECEDE Model. The respondents had been stratified through the random sampling where strata were classes. A structured observation checklist was also administered to assess hygiene enabling facilities for each school. Children's knowledge and perceptions were inconsistent with hygienic behaviour. The family institution seemed to play a more important role in life skills training and positive reinforcement compared to the school (50 vs 27.3). There was no association between a child's sex; age and parents' occupation with any of the factors assessed (P=0.646). Schools did not provide a hygiene enabling environment as there were no learning materials; policy and resources on hygiene and health. The challenges lay in the provision of hygiene enabling facilities; particularly; the lack of access to sanitation for the maturing girl child and a school curriculum that provides positive reinforcement and practical life skills training approach

Prevalence of Giardiasis and Cryptosporidiosis among Children in Relation to Water Sources in Selected Village of Pawi Special District in Benishangul-Gumuz Region; Northwestern Ethiopia

"Introduction: Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum are implicated in many waterborne disease outbreaks in different parts of the world. Objective: This study was conducted to assess the prevalence of these two parasites among children below 14 years old that drink water from different sources. Methods: Single stool specimens were collected from a total of 384 children in Almu; K2V24; and K2V23/24 villages; Pawi Special District; northwestern Ethiopia; and microscopically examined for Giardia cyst/trophozoites and Cryptosporidium oocysts. For identification of Cryptosporidium parvum the modified Ziehl-Neelsen staining method was used. Giardia lamblia was detected using direct microscopy based on wet mount and formalin-ether concentration techniques. Results: Out of the 384 children examined; 102 (26.6) and 31 (8.1) were found positive for G. lamblia and C .parvum infection; respectively. Prevalence of giardiasis in female children was significantly higher than in the males. However; no significant association was observed for infection of cryptosporidiosis between the two sexes. G.lamblia and C. parvum infection prevalence was not significantly different among the different age groups. On the other hand; the prevalence of G. lamblia and C. parvum was associated with the source of drinking water with more cases of giardiasis detected in study participants using water from unprotected water sources than those using the ""protected"" water. Contrary to this; more cases of cryptosporidiosis were detected in those using ""protected"" water sources. Conclusion: From the findings of the study one can conclude that providing well protected and treated drinking water should be considered a priority for reducing the existing high prevalence of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis in the study area. [Ethiop. J. Health Dev. 2010;24(3):205-213]"

Schistosomiasis and Water-Related Practices in School Girls in Rural KwaZulu-Natal; South Africa

There is increasing evidence of an association between female genital Schistosoma haematobium infection and HIV. In KwaZulu-Natal; we aimed to explore girls' water contact practice and to determine whether a study exclusively on girls would be manageable and welcomed. Three primary schools that had participated in a parasite control programme eight years prior were approached. Subject to consent; girls aged 9 to 12 years were interviewed on water-body contact; symptoms and household composition. Urine samples were analysed for S. haematobium infection eggs. Good dialogue was achieved in all schools and 95consented to participation; 43had an S. haematobium infection; geometric mean intensity 10.5 ova per 10 ml urine. Only 12had ever been treated for S. haematobium. Water-body contact was significantly associated with S. haematobium (OR 2.8; 95CI 1.3-5.9; p= 0.008); however; S. haematobium was also found in 20of girls who claimed to never have had water-body contact. Sixty-four percent thought they had no choice but to use unprotected water; 21had no mother in the household; and being an orphan increased the risk of having S. haematobium. The community welcomed the study. Prevalence levels in South Africa are so high that some communities are eligible for WHO-recommended regular mass treatment

Antibiotic Resistance Profiles of Escherichia coli Isolated from Different Water Sources in the Mmabatho Locality; Northwest Province; South Africa

The antibiotic resistance profiles of Escherichia coli (E. coli); isolated from different water sources in the Mmabatho locality were evaluated. Water samples were collected from the local wastewater- and water-treatment plants; the Modimola Dam and homes in the area; and then analysed for the presence of E. coli; using standard methods. Presumptive isolates obtained were confirmed by the analytical profile index test. Antibiotic susceptibility testing was performed by the disc diffusion method. Of the 230 E. coli isolates tested; marked antibiotic resistances (over 70) were observed for erythromycin; tetracycline; ampicillin; chloramphenicol and norfloxacin. Multiple antibiotic resistance patterns were also compiled. Overall; the phenotype T-Ap-E was frequent for E. coli isolated from the local wastewater and water-treatment plants; Modimola Dam and tap water. Cluster analysis performed showed a unique antibiotic resistance pattern which suggested a link between isolates from all sampling points. The findings indicated that improper wastewater treatment may have a potential impact on the dissemination and survival of E. coli; as well as other pathogenic bacteria in water for human and animal consumption. This may result in water- and food-borne disease outbreaks with a negative effect on antibiotic therapy

Domestic Water Sourcing and the Risk of Diarrhoea: a Cross-Sectional survey of a Periurban Community in Jos; Nigeria

Background:Water and sanitation has been identified as an important component of Primary Health Care (PHC) necessitating the World Health Organization to declare 1981- 1990 as the international water years. Nigeria is the largest single country in sub Saharan Africa worst hit with about three quarters of its population unable to access safe water. The study aims to examine the association between domestic water sourcing practice and the risk of developing diarrhea. Methodology : A total of 200 households were studied over an eight week period from 4 June to 31st July 2005 using an interviewer administered questionnaire. Data was analyzed using Epi Info version 3.5.1. Results:Most of the household (80) were seen to source domestic water from the municipal pipe-borne water supply; while only 5source water from their own dug-in well only. 27of the households reported diarrhea in their household in the last six month. The diarrhea was found to have bivariate association with the number of children in the household; the educational level of the household head; and income of household head. No association was found between diarrhea and age of household head. Conclusion : The study showed that there is association between domestic water sourcing practice and the risk of developing diarrhea. It is therefore recommended that high premium be placed on improving access to water and improved household hygiene as a way of helping to curb diarrhea

Microbial and Chemical analysis of potable water in public­water supply within Lagos University, Ojo

Water samples were collected especially into sterile containers at four designated pints within the Lagos State University; Ojo Campus. The water samples were immediately subjected to both chemical and microbiological analysis in order to evaluate the quality of potable water in circulation within the university and identify its sources of contami- nation. Levels of iron; calcium and magnesium detectable in the circulating drinking water were far below the WHO recommended limits. However; more potentially dangerous discovery was the level of Coliform contamination which far exceeds the WHO standards. This explains the high incidence of water-borne diseases such as Dysentry; Diarrhea; Typhoid fever within the university population. Meanwhile; other microorganisms detected were E. coli; Pseudomonas aeruginosa; Staphylococcus aureus; yeasts and moulds. The pH of potable water in circulation falls within recommended limits (6.0-8.0) but for faculty of arts and social sciences that had pH of 5.5 which suggested a high degree of public health concern. There is the need for adequate changes to be made at points where water distribution systems integrity appeared compromised. The university community is advised to boil water before drinking in order to avoid consumption of unwholesome biological agents in the water distribution

The quality of water in small community supplies of Kingolwira village; Morogoro; Tanzania

Water quality is an important aspect in human health; as the majority of infectious diseases that cause morbidity and mortality in population are water related. The present study was undertaken to assess the quality of water in Kingolwira; Morogoro Rural District; Tanzania. Water was collected from different sites in the village and analysed for a period of six months. Physical; chemical and microbiological qualities of water were examined. The pH of the water ranged from 7.02 to 7.20 and the water temperature ranged from 25.70C to 27.00C. The total dissolved solids of the water samples ranged from 110 to 510 ppm. The water contained considerable levels of lead and copper ranging from 0.034 to 0.090 ppm and 0.022 to 0.030 ppm; respectively. Total water hardness ranged from 19.60 to 228.10 ppm as calcium carbonate. The total viable counts and faecal coliform counts ranged from 2.75x103 to 5.4 x 103 c.f.u/ml and 0.93 x102 to 2.1x102 counts/100ml; respectively. Overall; water supplies in the village were judged as of poor quality. Water is usually used for domestic purposes including cooking; drinking; washing and preparation of infant foods without any treatment. In conclusion therefore; water in Kingolwira village is of poor quality and needs to be treated before consumption. Theres is also a need for the rural population to be educated on hazards of using untreated water. In general; sanitary facilities in rural areas in Tanzania need to be improved in order to avoid health hazards

Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) and Coliform Bacteria in Underground Water in Areas around Nairobi

Most people in areas surrounding Nairobi use untreated underground waters for their domestic chores. A study was carried out during the wet season (April-June) and the dry season (September-November) of the year 1994 to find out if these untreated underground waters contain dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and coliform bracteria. Out of the 40 sites sampled during both the wet and dry seasons; 11 contained colifrorm bacteria during the wet season; while only 2 contained the microbes during the dry season. The microbes were detected only in the wells. DOC was detected in 37 sites during the wet season and in 31 sites during the dry season within a range of 2.0-30.8 mg L-1. DOC which mainly consists of humic and fulvic acids was quantified by measuring their absorbance at 360nm by UV-VIS spectrophotometry. The presence of coliform bacteria was detected by use of microbiological techniques

The Quality of Groundwater in Benin City : a Baseline Study on Inorganic Chemicals and Microbial Contaminants of Health Importance in Boreholes and Open Wells

PURPOSE : Inorganic chemicals and microorganisms are common in human environments and at high levels poisoning from the chronic effects have occasionally occurred. The purpose of this study was therefore to investigate whether the levels of inorganic chemicals and microbial contaminants in boreholes and open wells in selected Districts in Benin City are sufficient to affect the health of the inhabitants of the areas under investigation. METHOD: Six (6) boreholes and three (3) open wells were randomly selected from two Districts (Okhoro and Teboga) in Benin City. Water samples were collected from the boreholes and open wells using standard techniques. Lead (Pb); chromium (Cr); zinc (Zn); and cadmium (Cd) concentrations as well as aerobic bacteria; presumptive faecal coliform; E. coli; faecal Streptococci and fungi in the water samples were determined using standard procedures. World Health Organisation acceptable limits for drinking water were used in the evaluation. RESULT: All the boreholes and open wells were contaminated with abnormal levels of Pb. High levels of Cr and Cd were found in the borehole and open wells at Okhoro. Abnormal levels of Zn concentrations were detected in almost all the boreholes and open wells. All the boreholes at Teboga were contaminated with unacceptable levels of aerobic bacteria and fungi. Presumptive faecal colifom; E.coli and faecal Streptococci were seen in all the boreholes. CONCLUSION: Some boreholes and open wells in Okhoro and Teboga Districts in Benin City are contaminated with abnormal levels of metals and microorganisms capable of causing health hazards to the consumers of boreholes and open wells