Comparing cardiorespiratory fitness and physical activity levels between third- and fifth-year medical students in a South African university

Background: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors such as sedentary behaviour, decreased physical activity (PA), and low cardiorespiratory fitness lead to an increased and accelerated risk of cardiovascular disease and mortality. Medical students tend to adopt sedentary lifestyles due to a demanding curriculum. This may have a negative effect on CVD risk factors and cardiorespiratory fitness levels of medical students. Objectives: To compare physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness levels in a cohort of third- and fifth-year undergraduate medical students in a South African university. Methods: Data from 123 third-year and 139 fifth-year medical students in the Graduate Entry Medical Programme (GEMP) at the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, were collected. Measurements included CVD risk factors, height, weight, blood pressure, waist circumference, cardiorespiratory fitness, physical activity vital signs and pre-participation health screening questionnaires. Descriptive statistics were presented as mean ± standard deviation or median [interquartile range] depending whether the data were normally distributed or not. Results: Both groups had low cardiorespiratory fitness when compared to norm values (GEMPI VO2 peak was 29.1 ± 5.9 ml.kg1.min-1 and GEMPIII VO2 peak was 30.0[11.0] ml.kg-1.min-1). Most participants did not meet WHO physical activity requirements (GEMP I: 72%; GEMP III: 78%). There were significant differences in BMI (p=0.046), diastolic blood pressure (p=0.034) and VO2 peak (p=0.00001) between students meeting and not meeting WHO physical activity requirements (p<0.05). Conclusion: Third- and fifth-year medical students at a South African university fail to meet recommended WHO physical activity levels and are below cardiorespiratory fitness norms. Therefore, medical institutions should promote and implement targeted physical activity interventions to reduce the prevalence of low fitness levels and the associated health hazards among their students.

The influence of psychological readiness of athletes when returning to sport after injury

Background: Injuries are a common occurrence in sports participation; however, they have the potential to be accompanied by negative thoughts and feelings, which may play a part in the athletes' state of mind when they return to their sport. Assessing the degree to which this occurs provides an opportunity to evaluate and address athletes' state of mind before their return to play. Objectives: To determine if athletes are psychologically ready to return to play after an injury and if there are differences in fear avoidance behaviour between those who were and were not ready to return. Methods: Eighty-eight athletes participated in this descriptive survey. Athletes' confidence to return to play was measured by the Injury-Psychological Readiness to Return to Play (I-PRRS) questionnaire and their fear avoidance was measured by the Athlete Fear Avoidance Questionnaire (AFAQ). Results: Fifty injured athletes with a mean age of 23.3±4.0 years old responded to the I-PRRS and the AFAQ questionnaires. The average I-PRRS score was 46.5±9.1 AU. The evidence suggests that 60% of the athletes were not ready to return to sport (41.0±7.5 AU), whereas 40% were ready to return (54.8±3.1 AU). The difference in scores was not significant. The relationship between the AFAQ scores and the I-PRRS score for the 'ready' and 'not ready' groups was not significant (p=0.066). The mean AFAQ score (26.1±8.6 AU) for the 'not ready' group is marginally greater than the mean AFAQ score (21.6±7.5 AU) for the 'ready' group. There was a negative correlation between psychological readiness to return to sport and athletic fear avoidance (r =-0.508, p<0.001). Conclusion: There needs to be a greater utilisation of psychological assessment tools like the Injury-Psychological Readiness to Return to Play (I-PRRS) questionnaire, which can assist the athlete's support team, who can help identify athletes who are apprehensive about returning to sport after injury.

Physical activity and quality of life of patients with fibromyalgia

Background: Fibromyalgia Syndrome (FMS) has been linked to decreased social functioning, poor mental health, and quality of life (QOL). Increased physical functioning and activity can result in improvements in social, mental and overall health, as well as lowered depression and anxiety levels. Objectives: The aim of this study was to determine physical activity levels and QOL amongst patients diagnosed with fibromyalgia in the Johannesburg region of South Africa. Methods: The research design was cross-sectional. Descriptive and quantitative data were collected. FMS patients (n=38) completed an online questionnaire on the Google Forms platform. The questionnaire was comprised of four components, namely Demographics, the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ), the Fibromyalgia Impact Questionnaire (FIQR), and the Short Form-36 (SF-36). During data analysis, descriptive characteristics and correlations were computed. The significance level was set at p ≤ 0.05. Results: Results revealed high FIQR scores (67%) accompanied with low QOL scores (<50% in all domains). There was no correlation between physical activity and FIQR, and physical activity and QOL. Conclusion: High scores on the impact of FMS were associated with lower overall QOL scores. However, the relationship between physical activity, and the impact of FMS and QOL remain inconclusive.

Physical activity levels in female breast cancer patients and survivors in Ekurhuleni, South Africa

Background: By using complementary therapies, such as exercise rehabilitation during and after cancer treatment, breast cancer patients and survivors can improve their quality of life and overall health while also negating the deleterious effects of breast cancer and its treatment. Objectives: The aim of this study was to determine the physical activity levels of female breast cancer patients and survivors in Ekurhuleni, South Africa. Methods: The International Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (2002) determined participants' physical activity levels during work, travel and leisure. The questionnaire was disseminated to medical facilities in hard copy format and online via the Google Forms platform. Statistics were computed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) with the level of significance set at 95% (p < 0.05). Results: One hundred female breast cancer patients and survivors with a mean age of 55 years from Ekurhuleni, South Africa participated in this study. The findings reflected that most participants (59%) were meeting the American College of Sports Medicine's physical activity guidelines when considering activity done during work, travel and leisure. No significant difference was seen in physical activity participation between breast cancer patients and breast cancer survivors, or those attending private and public facilities. Conclusion: For the breast cancer patient, physical activity and exercise may be a promising and effective adjuvant treatment both during and after anticancer therapies, improving quality of life, playing a role in increasing treatment tolerance, mitigating a range of symptoms and side effects brought on by cancer diagnosis and treatments and enhancing outcomes

Symptomatic congenital syphilis in a tertiary neonatal unit in Cape Town, South Africa: High morbidity and mortality in a preventable disease

Background. Despite preventive measures and effective treatment, congenital syphilis continues to impact significantly on neonatal morbidity and mortality. There has been no recent South African (SA) published literature reviewing congenital syphilis, particularly in the context of a tertiary neonatal setting. Objectives. To describe the clinical features of symptomatic neonates with congenital syphilis and to identify modifiable patient, clinical and health facility factors that contributed to syphilis infection. Methods. All positive serological tests for syphilis performed in neonates at Groote Schuur Hospital (GSH), Cape Town, SA, between 1 January 2011 and 31 December 2013 were obtained. Folders were reviewed, and neonates with clinical signs of congenital syphilis were included. Results. Of 50 symptomatic neonates, 19 (38%) died. Twenty-eight mothers (56%) were unbooked and therefore received no antenatal care. Most mothers (98%) were inadequately treated. Health worker-related failures included poor notification and partner tracing as well as failure to recheck syphilis serology after 32 weeks' gestation in mothers who initially tested negative. Thirty-four neonates required intensive care unit admission. Two significant predictors of mortality were 1-minute and 5-minute Apgar scores <5. Hydrops fetalis was an independent risk factor for mortality, as were moderate to severely abnormal cranial ultrasound scan findings. Conclusions. Congenital syphilis in neonates admitted to the GSH neonatal unit was associated with substantial morbidity and mortality. The modifiable factors identified represent inadequate antenatal healthcare and health system failures. These factors are longstanding, highlighting the need to establish governance and audit processes and address the continuing socioeconomic and sociocultural barriers that mothers face as a way forward in ultimately eliminating this entirely preventable disease

The use of negative pressure wave treatment in athlete recovery

Background: Athletes need to recover fully to maximise performance in competitive sport. Athletes who replenish more quickly and more efficiently are able to train harder and more intensely. Elite athletes subjectively report positive results using lower body negative pressure (LBNP) treatment as an alternate method for rapid recovery, restoring and improving their impaired physical state. Objective data on the efficacy are lacking.Objectives: To investigate the effect of intermittent vacuum therapy on accelerating acute recovery following an athlete's normal daily training schedule of strenuous exercise. Objective measurements of biological markers of muscular fatigue were used to assess recovery.Methods: Twenty-two male cricket players in a randomised cross-over study were divided into a treatment and control group respectively. Following a one-hour high-intensity gym session, the treatment group received three 30-minute LBNP exposure sessions over three consecutive days (0, 24 and 48 hours). Blood lactate and creatine kinase biomarkers were collected to measure the recovery process. After 14 days groups were crossed over and the trial repeated.Results: Heart rate and blood pressure decreased noticeably during treatment, reverting to baseline levels after treatment. Lactate concentrations decreased in both groups after exercise termination; significantly more in the treatment (0.57±0.23 mmol/l) than control group (0.78±0.22 mmol/l), p<0.001). Creatine kinase (CK) was similar in both groups. Athletes' subjective assessments of recovery rated moderately high.Conclusion: LBNP therapy applied as treatment during routine schedule may have a systemic effect in lowering serum lactate levels, but not CK levels. Enhanced recovery of athletes is still unconfirmed

Injury incidence and characteristics in South African school first team rugby: A case study

Background: Despite its apparent popularity, participation in the sport of rugby union is accompanied by a significant risk of injury. Concerned parties have recently questioned whether this risk is acceptable within school populations. This is difficult to assess within the South African schools' population as no recent longitudinal injury studies exist.Objectives: To determine the training habits, rugby-related exposure and injury risk within a population of South African high school first team rugby players.Methods: Training and match exposure in both school and provincial competition were examined and the resultant injuries were longitudinally observed for the duration of a South African high school rugby season.Results: Match (79, 95%CI 52-105 injuries/1 000 h) and training (7, 95%CI 3-11 injuries /1000h) injury incidences were demonstrated to be greater than previously reported incidences in similar populations in England and Ireland. Weeks where players were exposed to both school and provincial competition (34, 95%CI 19-49 injuries /1 000 h) had significantly (p<0.05) greater injury incidences than during school competition alone (19, 95%CI 12-26 injuries /1 000 h).Conclusion: The injury risk demonstrated was greater than expected and represents reasons for concern. Possible reasons for the high injury incidence recorded may be the frequency of games played within the season, and the overlap of school and provincial competitions. It should be noted that these results were taken from one school over one season and might not be representative of the incidence of school rugby injuries overall. However, this research demonstrates the need for a multischool longitudinal study within South African schools rugby to determine the overall risk

The prevalence, risk factors predicting injury and the severity of injuries sustained during competition in professional mixed martial arts in Africa

Background: Professional mixed martial arts (MMA) has gained international popularity. No African-based studies have reported the prevalence or severity of injuries, risk factors associated with injuries or return-to-play (RTP) time. Objectives: To determine the prevalence of injuries and associated risk factors, as well as severity of injuries sustained by professional male MMA athletes competing at the Extreme Fighting Championships Africa (EFC Africa) from 2010 to 2014.Methods: Permission to do the study and the medical records of all professional events (2010 ­ 2014) were obtained from EFC Africa. Data were obtained from 173 male competitors aged 18 to 44 years, who had participated in 300 professional MMA fights. Results from this prospective cohort study were compared to a similar study done in the United States of America (USA). An injury was defined as any damage to an athlete's body that needed the attention of the ringside physician. Statistical analyses included descriptive statistics and a stepwise logistic regression. Odds of an injury were predicted with six independent variables: fight outcome, age, weight division, number of fights, injuries in the preceding fight and years of fighter experience.Results: Head, face and neck injuries were most common (22%), followed by traumatic brain injuries (knockouts) (6%). Losing a fight was a significant predictor of injury when using the stepwise logistic regression model (p=0.040). The odds ratio indicated that a preceding fight injury almost doubled the risk of injury in the following fight (OR 1.91; p= 0.163). Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) in this study of African-based competitions (6%) were substantially higher than reported in the American study (1.8%). Conclusion: Head, neck and face injuries are common in African fighters. The high rate of TBIs in African competition compared to the USA study is concerning. This could reflect superior refereeing in the USA group, as fights may be ended sooner by stoppage. Further investigation of injury trends and preventative measures should be studied to reduce the incidence of injuries during African competitions

Concussion knowledge and attitudes among amateur South African rugby players

Background: The South African Rugby Union's BokSmart programme currently educates coaches and referees on concussion. Rugby players are often more familiar with their teammates than the coach or referee. Therefore they are well-positioned to play a pivotal role in rugby safety if they have adequate knowledge to identify subtle signs and abnormal behaviour displayed by a concussed teammate. However, no programme focuses on concussion education among South African rugby players and there is a dearth of literature on concussion education programmes among rugby players which could lead to safer return to play (RTP) habits.Objectives: To evaluate South African rugby players' concussion knowledge and attitudes/behaviours regarding RTP following a concussion.Methods: A descriptive, cross-sectional study was used. Participants (n=294) were divided into junior amateur high school (JAHS) (n=216) and senior amateur club (SAC) (n=78) players. The modified RoCKAS-ST questionnaire was used to evaluate their concussion knowledge index (CKI) and concussion attitudes/behaviours index (CAI) regarding RTP.Results: On average, 62% (JAHS) and 60% (SAC) of the CKI questions were answered correctly. JAHS participants correctly identified 66% of concussion symptoms, similarly to the SAC participants (63%), rendering similar (p=0.37) overall CKI scores when comparing the two groups. The CAI questions yielded similar (p=0.98) results between the groups, reporting safe responses in 66% (JAHS) and 67% (SAC) of the items.Discussion and conclusion: Junior and senior South African amateur rugby players lacked approximately one-third of essential concussion knowledge, which may lead to a display of unsafe attitudes/ behaviours to concussion and RTP. Further research is warranted to inform educational programmes on concussion among rugby players

Attitudes towards nutritional supplement use amongst adult gymnasium users in Johannesburg North

Background: Nutritional supplements refer to a product ingested to increase the nutritional content of a normal diet, to fill a dietary need and/or presumed deficiency. The usage and popularity of nutritional supplements, however, raises concerns from a health benefit and risk perspective. In South Africa, there is currently no adequate regulatory framework of enforcement for nutritional supplement products and undeclared constituents by the statutory body, the Medicines Control Council (MCC). Education awareness programmes by organisations that should take consumer protection and the general public health and wellness as a right, needs to be improved. Objectives: To investigate the attitudes toward nutritional supplements by adult gym users from commercial gymnasiums in the Johannesburg North region of South Africa. Methods: A cross-sectional quantitative design, using a selfadministered questionnaire was applied to 364 recruited study participants who attended commercial gymnasiums in Johannesburg North. Results: One hundred and fifty users (41%) claimed that they 'always' read the information about the nutritional values, benefits, and side effects of the supplements on the labels prior to use. Three hundred and three users (83%) indicated that the number of users of nutritional supplements in gymnasiums is on the increase. Two hundred and seventy-three (75%) of main information sources for nutritional supplements may be found on the internet, while 292 (80%) indicated the need for gymnasiums to provide educational programmes pertaining to nutritional supplement consumption. Conclusion: Gymnasium users are aware of the increase in nutritional supplement use in commercial gymnasiums. Many of the users were unaware of the potential mislabelling and health concerns regarding these supplements. Therefore there is a need for improved nutritional supplement education programmes and diligence at multiple levels

Effectiveness of Early Quadriceps Exercises after Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction

OBJECTIVE. To systematically review the published information regarding the effectiveness and safety of early postoperative quadriceps muscle exercise training on pain; joint laxity; function and range of motion in postoperative anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction adult patients. DATA SOURCES. Five databases (CINAHL; PEDro; Pubmed; Science Direct and the Cochrane Library) were searched for studies published from January 1990 to May 2007. StTUDY SELECTION. Publications describing research into the effectiveness of early quadriceps exercises after ACL reconstruction were included. A total of three eligible articles met the inclusion criteria. DATA EXTRACTION. A review of the three eligible studies was undertaken to describe the key study components. The PEDro Scale was used to determine the methodological quality of the selected trials and the level of evidence of all the eligible studies was categorised according to the evidence hierarchy by Lloyd-Smith.24 Relevant data were extracted by the two reviewer groups to reduce bias. DATA SYNTHESIS. Due to study heterogeneity a meta-analysis could not be conducted. Effect sizes were calculated provided that sufficient data were provided. Outcome measures included range of motion (ROM); functional performance; pain and knee laxity. The methodological quality of the studies did not vary considerably across the studies and the average PEDro score was 66. Marginal significant differences were noted in knee ROM at 1 month ostoperatively; pain day 1 postoperatively; knee laxity and subjective evaluation of function at 6 months postoperatively. CONCLUSION. Early quadriceps exercises can be performed safely in the first 2 postoperative weeks; but clinically significant gains in ROM; function; pain and knee laxity were not evident. Further research should include standardised interventions; measurement time frames and outcome measurement tools to allow for a meta- analysis to be conducted

Sources of Variance and Reliability of Objectively Monitored Physical Activity in Rural and Urban Northern Sotho-Speaking Blacks

OBJECTIVE. We investigated the sources of variance and reliability in an objective measure of physical activity for a 14-hour and 4-day monitoring period. Design. A convenience sample of rural (N=31) and urban (N=30) adult; Northern Sotho-speaking blacks was recruited. Physical activity was assessed for 8 consecutive days usinga uni-axial accelerometer. Physical activity indices were total counts; average counts; inactivity (500 counts) moderate-1 activity (500 - 1 951 counts); moderate-2+vigorous activity (.1 952 counts); and were expressed per hour or per day as required. RESULT. Accelerometry data from 41 subjects (23 males; 18 females) complied with selection requirements and were analysed for variance distribution and reliability (intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs)). For the 14-hour monitoring period variance was distributed as follows: intra-individual (71- 82); inter-individual (3 - 18) and hour-of-day (2 - 14). Attenuated ICCs ranged from 0.31 to 0.75 (median: 0.70). Variance for the 4-day monitoring period differed from the 14-hour monitoring period: inter-individual (47 - 58); intraindividual (43 - 51) and day-of-week (0 - 6.5). Attenuated ICCs ranged from 0.27 to 0.84 (median: 0.79). Irrespective of the monitoring period; total counts; average counts and moderate-2+vigorous activity tended to be the most reliable measures requiring the fewest number of monitoring periods. CONCLUSIONS. These findings provide an insight for understanding how variance is distributed in objectively measuredactivity patterns of a South African sample and show that reliable measures of adult physical activity behaviours require 18 - 128 hours and 3 - 44 days; depending on the monitoring period; physical activity index; residence status and sex

Effect of Music on Submaximal Cycling

OBJECTIVE. Athletes frequently report training to music; yet there have been relatively few studies that have addressed the benefit of exercising with music. Design. Volunteer men and women (N=30); aged between 18 and 40 years; performed an initial familiarisation session. Part of this session involved the measurement of maximal oxygen consumption. With at least a 48-hour intervening period; this was then followed by a first 20-minute submaximal cycling session; at 80of maximal oxygen consumption. At least 48 hours later a second submaximal cycling session was performed. Subjects were randomly divided into two groups. Group A cycled without music and group B cycled with music for the first submaximal cycling session. Subjects underwent the same testing procedure for the second submaximal cycling session; but this time group A cycled to music and group B cycled without music. Subjects served as their own controls. SETTING. The study was performed in the physiology exercise laboratory; at the University of the Witwatersrand. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES. During the submaximal sessions heart rate; perceived exertion (Borg scale) and plasma lactate concentration were assessed. Subjects completed a post-test questionnaire once both submaximal cycling sessions were completed. RESULTS. There were no significant differences in physiological variables (change in plasma lactate and heart rate); nor were there any significant differences in Borg scale ratings when the subjects cycled with and without music. However; according to the post-test questionnaire 67of subjects identified the cycling session with music to be easier than the session without music. CONCLUSION. Listening to music while performing submaximal cycling resulted in no physiological benefit. Yet; the cycling session done in conjunction with music was deemed; by the majority of the subjects; to be easier than the cycling session without music

Physical Fitness; Nutritional Habits and Daily Locomotive Action of 12-Year-Old Children with Different Body Mass Index

OJECTIVE. The purpose of this study was to examine the differences in physical fitness; daily nutritional habits and locomotive behaviour among pupils with varying body mass index (BMI) in the 5th and 6th grades of primary school. DESIGN. The sample consisted of 480 pupils (229 boys and 251 girls); who participated in specific Eurofit tests and completed questionnaires probing their physical activity and nutritional habits. They were divided according to their BMI into normal; overweight or obese children. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES. 18and 8of the pupils were categorised as overweight and obese; respectively. RESULTS. From the data analysis (two-way ANOVA); with BMI and gender as independent variables; it was found that the obese and overweight pupils had lower performance in long jump; in 30-m speed and in 20-m shuttle run. They adopted sedentary daily habits; such as many hours of TV watching and unhealthly nutritional habits. CONCLUSIONS. The results of this study support the need for intervention at school through physical education and health education lessons; to inform pupils about the health risks associated with limited physical activity and unhealthy nutritional habits. Another goal should be to motivate and create behaviours that are conducive to better lifestyle habits

Seasonal Incidence and Nature of Cricket Injuries among Elite South African Schoolboy Cricketers

Objective. To identify the incidence and nature of injuries sustained by elite South African schoolboy cricketers. Design. Data were collected retrospectively using a questionnaire. Cricketers recalled all injuries from June 2003 to May 2004. Setting. The population consisted of 196 cricketers representing all provincial teams in the 2004 under-19 Coca-Cola Khaya Majola cricket week. Results. Sixty-seven injuries were sustained by 196 cricketers; with an incidence of 34.2during the period under review. Injuries occurred during matches (71.6); throughout the season due to repetitive stresses sustained during matches and practices (14.9); during practice (11.9) and during other forms of training (1.5). Bowling accounted for 50.7of the injuries; fielding 32.8; batting 14.9and the remaining 1.5occurred while warming up or training. The primary mechanism of injury occurred during the delivery stride and follow through of the fast bowler (34.3). Eighty seven per cent of the injuries were first-time injuries while 13were recurrent. Most injuries (40.6) reported were severe and took the cricketers more than 21 days to recover. Cricketers were more prone to injury during December and January. Conclusion. The incidence and nature of injuries have been recorded and potential risk factors for injury have been identified. It is suggested that coaches and cricketers partake in continuous educational processes that focus on all the physical; mental and technical components necessary for success in cricket; with a national database

Changes in Neutrophil Count; Creatine Kinases and Muscle Soreness after Repeated Bouts of Downhill Running

OBJECTIVE. A primary objective was to examine circulating neutrophil count after repeated bouts of downhill running. An additional aim was to determine creatine kinase (CK)levels during the initial 12 hours; after repeated DHRs. DESIGN. Eleven healthy; untrained Caucasian males performed 2 x 60 min bouts of DHR (-13.5); spaced 14 days apart; at a speed equal to 75VO2max on a level grade. Blood was collected before; after; and every hour for 12 hours; and every 24 hours for 6 days. Absolute neutrophil count; CK; and delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) were assessed. Result were analysed using repeated measures ANOVA (p0.05) with appropriate post hoc tests. RESULT. There were no significant differences in neutrophil count (p

Validity and Reliability of a Physical Activity/Inactivity Questionnaire in South African Primary Schoolgirls

Objective. We sought to determine the validity and reliability of a self-report physical activity questionnaire (PAQ) measuring physical activity/inactivity in South Africanschoolgirls of different ethnic origins. Methods. Construct validity of the PAQ was tested against physical activity energy expenditure estimated from an ACTIVITYGRAM and inactivity from reported television programme viewing in 332 girls (ages 9 - 12 yrs; grades 4 - 5). Body composition (WHO BMI percentiles and percentage body fat) was used as an indirect measure of validity for the PAQ. Test-retest reliability of the PAQ was assessed in a convenience sample of 14 girls. Results. Weak but significant associations were found between the body composition and PAQ-derived total energy expenditure (r=-0.18; p0.05 for percentage body fat; rschool sports showed good test-retest reliability (r=0.80; p0.05). Conclusions. Our results showed that the PAQ may provide some reasonable insights into levels of physical inactivity and activity in South African primary schoolgirls. However; additional studies are required using objective measures of physical activity; such as pedometry or accelerometry; to better understand the utility of the PAQ for children

A Review of Cricket Injuries and the Effectiveness of Strategies to Prevent Cricket Injuries at all Levels

Objective. This review evaluates the scientific research on cricket injuries; including long-term injury surveillance studies; the consensus statement paper for injury surveillance; specific counter-measures to reduce the risk of cricket injuries and finally identifies areas of future concern. Results. The literature shows that three major cricketplaying countries; Australia; England and South Africa; have collected long-term injury data. While these sets of data show definite trends; it was not always possible tomake direct comparisons between data collected in various countries. As a result a consensus statement paper with regards to definitions and methods to calculate injuryrates; incidence and prevalence was developed. The first study using this newly accepted injury surveillance method showed injury patterns in West Indies domestic andnational cricket teams. There have been three primary studies carried out with regards to interventions aimed at reducing the risk of injury to fast bowlers. These includeda coaching interventions programme; the use of a bowling aid in an attempt to modify bowling technique and a study that evaluated the recommended bowling workloadsin young cricketers. The implications of the changes to the laws relating to the bowling action and the increased usage of the sliding stop in fielding are reviewed. Conclusion. From the review it is evident that there is a need to continue with injury surveillance; as well as a need to continue with and increase the number of studies that evaluate the efficacy of intervention strategies in order to reduce the risk of injury to cricketers