ABSTRACT
Objective: Investigation of possible nitriergic mechanism involved in the compromised antidepressant effect of fluoxetine in stressed mice.Materials and methods: Male swiss albino mice were used in the present study. Mice were stressed by immobilization of 2hrs. Mice subjected to stress were considered as stressed mice and mice not subjected to stress were considered as unstressed mice. All the treatments were administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) in a fixed volume of 10 ml/kg and the depression like behavioral alterations in unstressed and stressed mice was measured by TST followed by FST. Nitrite levels were measured in brain homogenates to determine the possible involvement of nitriergic mechanism.Results: Present study showed that the 2hrs immobilization significantly increased the immobility period of mice in both TST and FST, with the concurrent increase in the levels of nitrite in the brain of stressed mice as compared to the vehicle treated unstressed mice. Fluoxetine (FLX) (20 mg/kg, i.p.); pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC) (100 mg/kg, i.p.) and methylene blue (MB) (100 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly reduced the immobility period of stressed mice in both TST and FST as compared to vehicle treated stressed mice. Pre-treatment with PDTC (100 mg/kg, i.p.) followed by the administration of FLX (20 mg/kg, i.p.) did not significantly alter the immobility period and nitrite levels as compared to the FLX (20 mg/kg, i.p.) treated stressed mice. Pre-treatment with MB (100 mg/kg, i.p.) followed by the administration of FLX (20 mg/kg, i.p.) did not significantly alter the immobility period of mice in TST, but significantly reduced the immobility period of mice in FST as compared to the FLX (20 mg/kg, i.p.) treated stressed mice. Also the pre-treatment with MB (100 mg/kg, i.p.) followed by the administration of FLX (20 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly reduced the nitrite levels as compared to the FLX (20 mg/kg, i.p.) treated stressed mice. Conclusion: It has been concluded that the immobilization stress induced increase production of NO was involved in the compromised antidepressant effect of fluoxetine in stressed mice.
ABSTRACT
Objectives: To investigate the GABAergic and nitriergic mechanism involved in the anxiolytic-like profile of ethanolic extract of garlic (GE). Materials and Methods: Male Swiss albino mice were employed in the present study. Stress was produced in mice by immobilizing them for 6h. Elevated plus maze, light/dark box and social interaction test were used for the assessment of anxiety in mice. Concentrations of GABA in brain and nitrite level in plasma were estimated to determine the possible involvement of GABAergic and nitriergic mechanisms in the anxiolytic profile of GE. Results: The present study showed that the GE produced significant antianxiety- like activity in unstressed and stressed mice. In unstressed mice, GE significantly increased GABA levels, but could not produce any change in nitrite levels. Meanwhile, in stressed mice, GE significantly increased GABA levels along with a significant decrease in nitrite levels. Pre-treatment with aminoguanidine, an inducible nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, significantly enhanced the anxiolytic-like activity of GE, as compared to GE and aminoguanidine alone in stressed mice, but not in unstressed mice. On the other hand, pretreatment with 7-nitroindazole, a neuronal nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, did not produce any significant change in antianxiety- like activity of GE in unstressed as well as stressed mice. Conclusion: It has been concluded that the garlic may possess anxiolytic- like activity and possess NOS inhibiting property in stressed mice, which may add to its status to be used in stress-induced anxiety conditions.
ABSTRACT
Medicines represent a substantial proportion of the economic costs for treating chronic diseases. In low and middle income countries (LMIC), 50–90% of the population have to pay for medicines themselves. Inappropriate access and availability of essential medicines contribute substantially to out-of-budget expense. A significant population of developing countries (upto 90%) purchase medicines through out-of-pocket payments. This research study was conducted to investigate the comparative availability of selected essential medicines for selected chronic diseases in Bhiwani district. Standardized methodology of World Health Organization and Health Action International was employed. The research study was conducted on retail pharmacy outlets of Bhiwani District i.e. residential areas of Bhiwani city and five administrative areas of Bhiwani district. Overall percent availability of the most of the surveyed medicines used in the treatment of chronic diseases was found to be less than 50%. Dissemination of well documented information on availability medicine consumers in all residential areas may enhance consumer demand for lower price medicine and thus may serve to enhance the availability of demanded medicine (lowest priced) in all the areas of Bhiwani district.
ABSTRACT
Inappropriate access of essential medicines contributes substantially to out-of-budget expense. Out-of-pocket expenditure makes a vital (up to 70%) health expenditure in India. This research study was conducted to investigate the comparative relative price to patient of selected essential medicines used for common ailments in Sonipat city. A research study on a price-to-be-paid to patient of selected essential medicines for selected common ailments was conducted. Standardized methodology of World Health Organization and Health Action International was employed. Prices were compared to an International Reference Price (Median Price Ratio). The study was conducted on all the two hundred retail pharmacy outlets attached to all residential areas of Sonipat city. The difference between lowest price and highest price (of available medicine) ranged from 0.30 – 40% in case of antimicrobials and 0.17 – 3.4% in case of antiulcers, antiemetics and analgesics. Dissemination of well documented information on affordability to medicine consumers may enhance consumer demand for lower price medicine and thus may serve to enhance the availability of demanded medicine in all the areas of Sonipat city.
ABSTRACT
Effects of selective nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitors, 7-nitroindazole (7-NI), a selective inhibitor of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) and aminoguanidine (AG), a selective inhibitor of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) on anxiety in unstressed and stressed mice were investigated using elevated plus maze (EPM) test and light-dark test (LDT). 7-NI (20 and 40 mg/kg, ip) produced anti-anxiety effect in unstressed mice but not in stressed mice. AG (50 and 100 mg/kg, ip) produced anxiolytic effect in stressed mice and failed to produce the similar effect in unstressed mice. Nitrite levels were increased in stressed mice, but not in unstressed mice, exposed to EPM and LDT for 5 min. Increased nitrite levels in stressed mice were attenuated by AG, but not by 7-NI. The effects of AG were enhanced by pyrrolidine-dithio-carbamate (PDTC), an inhibitor of NF-κB induction, in stressed mice. The results suggest the possible role of inducible nitric oxide synthase in stress-induced anxiogenesis as compared to unstressed mice, where neuronal form of NOS may plays pre-dominant role.
ABSTRACT
Experimental diabetes induced by streptozotocin (200 mg/kg, ip) markedly decreased the antinociceptive effect of morphine and significantly increased the urinary nitrite concentration. Administration of FR-167653 (a selective p38MAPKinase inhibitor) in a dose of 4 mg/kg improved the antinociceptive effect of morphine and attenuated the increase in urinary nitrite concentration in diabetic mice. It may be concluded that diabetes-induced decrease in antinociceptive effect of morphine may be due to induction of p38 MAPKinase activity.