Evaluación de la adultez emergente en Chile: validación del IDEA - extendido en universitarios chilenos / Assessment of emerging adulthood in Chile: validation of the extended - IDEA in Chilean university students

Resumen La adultez emergente es un nuevo periodo evolutivo, que abarca de los 18 a los 29 años. El instrumento más utilizado para evaluarla es el Inventario de Dimensiones de Adultez Emergente (IDEA). El objetivo general del estudio fue evaluar la pertinencia cultural y las características psicométricas del IDEA y de 25 ítems culturales/émicos en una muestra de 589 de universitarios chilenos. Análisis factoriales exploratorios demostraron que el IDEA tiene una estructura similar a la señalada por otro estudio chileno, y los ítems culturales conforman una estructura de tres factores. El análisis factorial confirmatorio arrojó un modelo unifactorial de seis indicadores, tres contienen 21 ítems originales del IDEA, y tres conservan 24 ítems culturales formando un solo instrumento, denominado IDEA - extendido, con propiedades psicométricas adecuadas. Este instrumento caracteriza la adultez emergente como una sola etapa de vida, que contiene aspectos éticos y émicos, dando un panorama integrado de sus características.

Abstract Emerging adulthood is a new evolutionary period ranging from 18 to 29 years. The most used instrument to evaluate it is the Inventory of the Dimensions of Emerging Adulthood (IDEA). The general objective of the study was to evaluate the cultural relevance and psychometric characteristics of the IDEA and 25 cultural/ emic items in a sample of 589 Chilean university students. Exploratory factorial analysis showed that the IDEA has a similar structure to one indicated by another Chilean study, and the cultural items form a three-factor structure. Confirmatory factorial analysis threw a unifactorial model of six indicators, three of them contain 21 original items of the IDEA, and three conserve 24 cultural items forming a single instrument, called extended - IDEA, with adequate psychometric properties. This instrument characterizes the emerging adulthood as a single stage of life, which contains ethical and emic aspects, giving an integrated view of its characteristics.

Adultez emergente y características culturales de la etapa en universitarios chilenos / Emerging adulthood and cultural characteristics of the stage in Chilean university students

La Adultez Emergente es un periodo de vida entre los 18 y 29 años, culturalmente construido y no de carácter universal. Ante la escasez de estudios en esta etapa en Chile, el objetivo de esta investigación fue caracterizar la Adultez Emergente, y determinar sus rasgos más relevantes en universitarios chilenos, a través de una aproximación cualitativa, desde los protagonistas. Seis grupos focales conformados por 60 universitarios a nivel nacional analizaron los ítems del Inventario de Dimensiones de Adultez Emergente o discutieron sus creencias sobre tres áreas definidas a priori: Identidad y Autoconcepto, Relación con los padres y salida del hogar, y Amor y sexualidad. Se evidencia la presencia de la Adultez Emergente en universitarios, pues las características centrales de la teoría están presentes en este grupo, y se obtiene evidencia de aspectos de carácter cultural propios de los universitarios chilenos, relacionados a la importancia de los vínculos familiares y sociales.

Emerging Adulthood is a period of life between 18 and 29 years old, culturally constructed and not universal. Given the paucity of studies about this developmental stage in Chile, the objective of this research was to characterize Emerging Adulthood and determine its most important features in Chilean university students using a qualitative approach, focused at the protagonists themselves. Six focus groups formed by 60 university students revised the items of the Inventory of Dimensions of Emerging Adulthood (IDEA) or discussed their beliefs about three areas defined a priori: Identity and self-concept, Relationship with parents and leaving home, and Love and sexuality. The presence of the Emerging Adulthood stage in university students is evident since its central features are present in this group; also there is evidence of others aspects that belong to cultural characteristics of the own Chilean university students which are related to the importance given to the family and social relationships.

Uso de las Escalas de Depresión Ansiedad Estrés (DASS-21) como Instrumento de Tamizaje en Jóvenes con Problemas Clínicos / Use of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21) as Screening Tests in Clinical Youngsters

Resumen: Este estudio determinó los puntajes de corte de las Escalas abreviadas de Depresión, Ansiedad y Estrés (DASS-21) para detectar jóvenes en riesgo de problemas de salud mental. Se utilizó una muestra de 393 jóvenes no consultantes y una muestra clínica de 77 jóvenes consultantes en fase inicial de tratamiento. La presencia de sintomatologia fue utilizada como gold standard para determinar puntajes de corte entre jóvenes de población general asintomáticos y consultantes con sintomatologia clínica. Mediante análisis de curvas ROC se examinó la capacidad de discriminación de cada escala, y a través de análisis de sensibilidad y especificidad se determinaron puntajes de corte. El área bajo la curva para cada una de las escalas del DASS-21 fue mayor a 0.90. Para la escala de Depresión, se seleccionó un punto de corte de 6 (>5), con una sensibilidad de 88,46 y especificidad de 86,77. Para la escala de Ansiedad, el punto de corte correspondió a 5 (>4), con sensibilidad de 87,50 y especificidad de 83,38. En la escala Estrés, se seleccionó un punto de corte de 6 (>5), con una sensibilidad de 81,48 y especificidad de 71,36. Las escalas de Depresión, Ansiedad y Estrés (DASS-21) demostraron una adecuada utilidad como instrumento de tamizaje.

Abstract: The short version of Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS-21; Lovibond y Lovibond, 1995) has been shown to have appropriate psychometric properties among Chilean adolescents and undergraduates. The current study was aimed at determining the cut-off scores of the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS-21) for screening Chilean youngsters at risk of mental health problems and requiring mental health treatment. The sample comprised 393 non-patients youngsters aged 15-24 and 77 youngsters at early stage of psychotherapy. The presence of symptoms was used as gold standard for estimating the cut-off betWeen non-symptomatic youngsters and symptomatic patients. Receiving Operating Characteristic (ROC) analyses allowed examining accuracy of each scale and sensitivity and specificity analysis was performed for determining the cut-off points. The area under the receiver operating characteristics curve (AUC) was higher than 0.9 for each scale of the DASS-21. The optimal cut-off score for the Depression scale was 6 and above, which resulted in sensitivity=88,46 and specificity=86,77, and a cut-off of 5 and above was optimal for the anxiety scale, with a sensitivity of 87,50 and specificity of 83,38.The Stress Scale had sensitivity of 81,48 and specificity of 71,36 at the optimal cut-off score of 6 and above. These findings suggest that the DASS-21 performs adequately as a screening tool to identify Chilean young people at risk of mental health problems.

Atención plena: validación del five facet mindfulness questionnaire (FFMQ) en estudiantes universitarios chilenos / Mindfulness: validation of the five facet mindfulness questionnaire (FFMQ) in chilean university students

Este estudio tuvo por objetivo determinar las propiedades psicométricas del Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) en estudiantes universitarios de la ciudad de Temuco en Chile (n = 399). El FFMQ es una prueba de autoreporte compuesta por 39 ítems, que mide la tendencia general a proceder con Atención Plena a partir de cinco habilidades: Observación, Descripción, Actuar con Conciencia, Ausencia de Juicio y Ausencia de Reactividad. El diseño es descriptivo correlacional, de grupo único. Los resultados muestran una confiabilidad adecuada y la asociación de Atención Plena con dimensiones de personalidad del Modelo de los Cinco Factores de Costa y McCrae, con la Autoactualización de las teorías humanistas y una relación inversa con estados emocionales negativos de depresión, ansiedad y estrés. Los análisis muestran que la versión nacional del FFMQ posee adecuadas propiedades psicométricas para ser utilizado en estudiantes universitarios chilenos y permite discriminar entre meditadores y no meditadores.

This study aimed to determine the psychometric properties of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) in university students from the city of Temuco, Chile (n = 399). The FFMQ is a self-report test consisting of 39 items, which measures the general tendency to proceed with Mindfulness by using five skills: Observation, Description, Acting with Awareness, Non-judging of inner experience and Non-reactivity to inner experience. The design is descriptive correlational of unique group. The results show adequate reliability and Mindfulness association with personality dimensions of the Five Factor Model of Costa and McCrae, with the Self-Actualization of humanistic theories and an inverse relation to negative emotional states of depression, anxiety and stress. Analyzes show that the Chilean version of FFMQ has adequate psychometric properties for use in Chilean university students and discriminates between meditators and non-meditators.

Problemas de salud mental en estudiantes de una universidad regional chilena / Mental health problems among students of a regional Chilean university

Background: The increase in university population in Chile has also increased the number of students presenting mental health disorders. Aim: To determine the frequency of mental health problems and its association with other relevant variables among students of a regional university in Chile. Material and Methods: A sample of 484 students aged 18 to 28 years (45% males) were assessed once using a battery of tests designed to detect mental health problems. The instruments used were Derogates SCL-90-R, Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II), Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS-21) and a social-demographic questionnaire. Results: Fifteen percent of the sample presented high levels of mental health symptoms, determined according to the cut-off points of Beck inventories. This symptomatic group, which also showed high levels of stress, was composed mostly of freshmen and women. There was a significant association between symptoms and socio-demographic variables such as living in rural areas, ethnicity and socioeconomic status, a higher need for psychological and psychiatric care and a lower number of extracurricular activities. Conclusions: The knowledge of mental health problems among university students will allow to generate strategies for mental health prevention, promotion and treatment.

Consumo de alcohol y drogas en adolescentes evaluado a través del MMPI-A / Alcohol and drugs use in adolescents assessed through the MMPI-A

Currently, the consumption of alcohol and drugs is a major public health problem worldwide due to its high social and economic impact. In Chile, the highest prevalence and greatest drug consumption rates occur in young people aged 19 to 25 years. Adolescence is the most vulnerable development stage for starting drug use. The latest study from CONACE (Chilean National Council for Drugs Control) in school population indicates that 15.1% of students report having used marijuana in the past year, while 33% admitted current use of tobacco and 36% of alcohol. Drug use among adolescents is exacerbated upon verification of its relationship with other risk behaviors as law transgressions, sexual promiscuity, teenage pregnancy and family difficulties. This situation has led various theorists to develop psychological assessment tools to specifically detect and evaluate drug use in adolescence. Among the instruments for psychological assessment, self-report measures have been the most widely used method to evaluate the use of alcohol and other drugs and their associated problems. One of the greatest strengths of self-report measures is that they can detect problems related to drugs in people who for various reasons would like to hide their status of substance abusers. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory for Adolescents (MMPI-A) is one of the best self-report instruments for clinical assessment in adolescent population. The MMPI-A consists of 478 items with True and False response format and it has three scales that specifically detect substance abuse problems; they are: MacAndrew's Alcoholism Scale Revised (MAC-R, in Spanish MAC-A), Alcohol/Drug Problem Acknowledgement Scale (ACK, in Spanish RPAD) and Alcohol/Drug Problem Proneness Scale (PRO, in Spanish TPAD). In Chile, there is a MMPI-A version which has empirical studies that support its use with general population Chilean adolescents. These studies also highlight the usefulness that MAC, ACK and PRO scales could have to provide detailed information on specific features that would impact on the use of alcohol and drugs. The aim of this study was to examine the ability of the MMPI-A Chilean version to detect substance abuse problems in specific settings. Its objectives were: 1. to determine the applicability of MAC-R, ACK and PRO scales in different samples of Chilean adolescents, 2. to evaluate the ability of these scales to discriminate problematic substance use in adolescents with and without other clinical problems, and 3. to propose discriminative cut-off scores for the indicated scales. In order to accomplish these goals, we used a quantitative methods approach with a descriptive correlational design for three independent groups. The sample comprised 74 adolescents (44 males and 30 females) with clinical problems that had substance use, diagnosed according to the CONACE criteria for unproblematic consumption categories (occasional and habitual consumption) and DSM-IV criteria for problematic use (abuse and dependence). This group was named "clinical adolescents with consumption" (CCC). Using this group as reference, we selected two additional contrasting groups: a group of adolescents with clinical problems but without substance use called "clinical adolescents without consumption" (CSC; n=71), and a group of school adolescents from general population without substance consumption problems nor other psychopathological problems that would warrant clinical attention called "school-youngsters from general population" (EPG; n=74). The total sample (n=219) had an average age of 16.3 years (SD=1.3) and was collected in urban centers located in south-central Chile. Two instruments were used: The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory for Adolescents (MMPI-A), which provides the three scales for the assessment of substance abuse: the MAC-R scale is a revision of the MAC scale, originally developed by MacAndrew to distinguish alcoholic from non-alcoholic psychiatric outpatients; the other two scales were developed for the assessment of alcohol and other drugs problems among adolescents. Specifically, the ACK scale was a rationally constructed scale of 13 items with obvious content relating to alcohol or other drug use; while the PRO scale was a 36-item scale constructed empirically by selecting items with no-obvious content related to substance uses that discriminated between adolescents who were in treatment for substance abuse and normal adolescents, or adolescents in clinical treatment. In addition, the clinical MMPI-A scales were used as a supplementary measure. The second instrument was a semi-structured clinical interview based on two clinical guides called protocols A and B. Protocol A allows for doing a clinical interview with adolescents starting from two open-ended questions that inquire reasons for consultation and information on family structure and dynamics. It also checks symptoms in six areas including school, behavioral, emotional, physical, sexual and interpersonal symptoms. Behavioral symptoms include the checking out for consumption of alcohol and drugs. Those adolescents who respond positively to the consumption of alcohol and drugs must answer Protocol B. This is a clinical guide of ad hoc construction, based on the criteria used by the CONACE for the diagnosis of non-problematic use of substances and the DSM-IV criteria for diagnosis of drug abuse and dependence.

En la actualidad, el consumo de alcohol y drogas es uno de los mayores problemas de salud pública en el mundo, debido a su alto costo social y económico. En Chile, las prevalencias más altas y la mayor intensidad en el consumo de drogas se registran en los jóvenes de 19 a 25 años, siendo la adolescencia la etapa más vulnerable para el inicio del consumo de drogas. El último estudio del CONACE (Comisión Nacional de Control de Estupefacientes) en población escolar señala que 15.1% de los estudiantes chilenos declaran haber consumido marihuana en el último año, mientras que 33% reconoce un consumo actual de tabaco y 36% de alcohol. El consumo de drogas en adolescentes se agrava al comprobarse su relación con otras conductas de riesgo, lo que plantea la necesidad de desarrollar instrumentos de evaluación psicológica que consideren el consumo de drogas en la adolescencia de modo específico. Entre los instrumentos de evaluación psicológica, las medidas de autorreporte han sido el método más utilizado para evaluar el uso de alcohol y drogas, pues permiten detectar este problema en personas que por diferentes motivos desearían esconder su condición de abusadores de sustancias. Uno de los instrumentos de autorreporte es el Inventario Multifásico de la Personalidad de Minnesota para Adolescentes (MMPI-A) el cual posee tres escalas que evalúan el consumo de alcohol y drogas: Alcoholismo de MacAndrew Revisada (MAC-A; en inglés, MAC-R), Reconocimiento de Problemas con el Alcohol y/o Drogas (RPAD; en inglés, ACK) y Tendencia a Problemas con el Alcohol y/o Drogas (TPAD; en inglés, PRO). Aunque en Chile existe una versión en español de la prueba y estudios empíricos que respaldan su uso con adolescentes chilenos, no se había estudiado su funcionamiento con adolescentes consumidores de drogas, lo cual motivó el desarrollo de la presente investigación. Los objetivos del estudio fueron: 1. conocer el comportamiento de las escalas MAC-A, RPAD y TPAD en diferentes muestras de adolescentes chilenos, 2. evaluar la capacidad de estas escalas para discriminar el consumo problemático de sustancias en adolescentes con y sin otros problemas clínicos y 3. proponer puntajes de corte discriminativos para las escalas señaladas. La muestra está compuesta por 74 adolescentes (44 hombres y 30 mujeres) con problemas clínicos que presentaban consumo de sustancias, diagnosticado según los criterios del CONACE para las categorías de consumo no problemático (ocasional y habitual) y del DSM-IV para el consumo problemático (abuso y dependencia). Este grupo fue denominado adolescentes Clínicos Con Consumo (CCC). A partir de él se seleccionó a dos grupos de contrastación: un grupo de adolescentes consultantes por problemas clínicos pero sin consumo de sustancias, los cuales fueron denominados adolescentes Clínicos Sin Consumo (CSC) y un grupo de adolescentes escolarizados de población general sin problemas de consumo ni otros problemas psicopatológicos que ameritaran una consulta clínica, denominados adolescentes Escolares de Población General (EPG). Los principales resultados de este estudio muestran que el MMPI-A es capaz de discriminar a los adolescentes clínicos consumidores de drogas de los adolescentes clínicos sin consumo y de los escolares de población general. Las puntuaciones de las escalas clínicas en general son superiores en los dos grupos de procedencia clínica que en el grupo normal. Las escalas suplementarias, MAC-A, RPAD y TPAD, poseen una capacidad de discriminación muy alta; la mayor capacidad de discriminación de las tres escalas se logra al diferenciar entre los adolescentes del grupo CCC y los del grupo EPG en los dos sexos, siendo TPAD la que mejor discrimina. Además, cabe destacar la utilidad de MAC-A y RPAD para distinguir entre adolescentes con consumo problemático y no problemático. Estos resultados demuestran la utilidad del MMPI-A para evaluar a adolescentes chilenos con sospecha de consumo de drogas e incentivan el estudio, adaptación y utilización de este instrumento en Latinoamérica.

Detección y descripción de rasgos psicopáticos en adolescentes utilizando el MACI / Screening and describing psychopathic traits in adolescents using the MACI

Este estudio reporta las características psicométricas de las dos escalas de Psicopatía del MACI y evalúa su utilidad para pesquisar y describir a adolescentes con alta psicopatía. Cuatro grupos representantes del continuo adaptación-desadaptación social respondieron el MACI y un autorreporte de comportamiento social adolescente. El análisis factorial de las escalas determinó estructuras de dos y tres factores, respectivamente, que son respaldadas por los modelos de psicopatía de Hare y de Cookie y Michie. Un algoritmo desarrollado con las puntuaciones de estas escalas identificó y permitió caracterizar un grupo de 49 jóvenes (11.2 % de la muestra) con alta psicopatía. Se discuten las características psicométricas y la utilidad de estas escalas para identificar a adolescentes con perfiles psicopáticos.

This study reports psychometric characteristics for two Psychopathy scales developed with the MACI and assess their utility for screening and describing high psychopathic adolescents. Four groups representing the social adjustment and maladjustment continue answered the MACI and a self report about adolescent social behaviour. A factorial analysis of the psychopathy scales determined structures formed by two and three factors which are supported by the models of psychopathy presented by Hare and by Cookie and Michie. An algorithm developed with these scales-scores identified and allowed to characterize a group of 49 adolescents (11.2 % of the sample) with high psychopathy. Psychometric characteristics and the utility of these two scales for identifying adolescents with psychopathic profiles are discussed.

Caracterización psicométrica del psychopathy checklist: youth version (PCL:YV) en adolescentes chilenos / Psychometric characterization of the psychopathy checklist: youth version (PCL:YV) in Chilean adolescents

Esta investigación determinó las características psicométricas del Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV; Forth, Kosson & Hare, 2003) en una muestra de 30 adolescentes chilenos, varones, infractores de ley. El análisis de confiabilidad arrojó un alfa = 0.41 para la escala total e indicadores más elevados para sus cuatro facetas (alfa entre 0.53 y 0.76). La validez concurrente establecida en relación a las escalas del Inventario Clínico para Adolescentes de Millon (MACI; Millon, 1993) mostró relaciones significativas moderadas entre el puntaje total del PCL:YV y las escalas del MACI relacionadas con el constructo de psicopatía. Además, se evaluó su relación con dos escalas de psicopatía desarrolladas conceptualmente con ítems del MACI. Los resultados indican que el PCL:YV presenta indicadores de confiabilidad y validez suficientemente adecuados para continuar su estudio en muestras chilenas con el fin de utilizarlo, en un futuro cercano, en la toma de decisiones profesionales relativas a jóvenes infractores de ley.

This research was aimed to determine the psychometric characteristics of the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV; Forth, Kosson & Hare, 2003) in a sample of 30 Chilean male, juvenile offenders. Reliability analysis showed an alpha = 0.41for the total scale and higher indexes for its four facets (alpha between 0.53 and 0.73). The concurrent validity with the Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory (MACI; Millon, 1993) showed significant associations among the total PCL:YV score and MACI scales related to the psychopathy construct. Besides, the association with two psychopathy scales that were conceptually developed by taking selected MACI items, was assessed. Results indicate that the PCL:YV presents reliability and validity indexes good enough to continue its study in Chilean samples to be use, in the near future, for taking professional decisions with relation to juvenile offenders.

Relativismo cultural del Modelo de Personalidad de Millon en América Latina: Un estudio con adolescentes / Cultural relativity of the Millon's Personality Model in Latin-America: A study with adolescents

Este estudio profundiza el análisis estadístico e interpretativo de cuatro patrones de personalidad del Inventario Clínico para Adolescentes de Millon (MACI-Millon, 1993). Estos patrones (Sumiso, Dramatizador, Egoísta y Conformista) han presentado un comportamiento no acorde con la teoría, en estudios realizados con adolescentes latinoamericanos. Se informa una revisión de los datos del estudio de baremación chilena del MACI, desarrollado con una muestra de 807 adolescentes, de 13 a 19 años, diferenciada por sexo y dicotomizada en dos grupos: no-consultantes (200 hombres y 206 mujeres) y consultantes (212 hombres y 189 mujeres) que contestó el MACI y el Inventario Multifásico de la Personalidad de Minnesota para Adolescentes (MMPI-A). Un conjunto de análisis de validez diagnóstica determinó que las escalas MACI diferenciaban de modo inverso a lo esperado teóricamente y estableció puntajes de corte óptimos entre los dos grupos. La comparación, mediante las escalas clínicas del MMPI-A, entre los grupos de funcionamiento sano y funcionamiento alterado creados por la segmentación de la muestra según el puntaje de corte de cada escala, indicó que estas escalas presentaban el comportamiento contra-teórico observado previamente. Estos resultados son discutidos considerando el síndrome cultural individualismo - colectivismo y los rasgos personales colectivistas que se presentan preferentemente en los grupos de adolescentes latinoamericanos. También se ofrecen criterios de interpretación clínica para estas escalas que integran características específicas relacionadas con la interacción social afectiva (escalas Dramatizador y Egoísta) y el respeto a las normas grupales (escalas Sumiso y Conformista) que se presentan preferentemente en la cultura latinoamericana.

This article deepens on the statistical and interpretative analysis done with four personality patterns from the Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory (MACI - Millon, 1993). These patterns (Submissive, Dramatizing, Egotistic, and Conforming) have presented, in different studies done with Latin-American adolescent samples,a psychometric behaviour different from the one we shall expect in agreement with Millon's theory. To do this, the data from the MACI's Chilean normative study was revised deeply. A sample of 807 adolescents, aged 13 through 19, divided by sex and also divided into a non consulting group (200 males and 206 females), and a clinical group (212 males and 189 females), was selected. All participants responded the MACI and the Minnesota Multiphasic Person ality Inventory for Adolescents (MMPI-A, Butcheret al., 1992). With the MACI scales data, a serie of statistical analysis for diagnostic validity (Hsu, 2002) that included Cohen's effect size (d),a percentage of non-overlap of the two distributions (U1), areas under receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves, and sensibility and specificity analysis, were run through successive stages. First, results confirmed that the scales Submissive, Dramatizing, Egotistic and Conforming scored significantly higher in the non-consulting groups than they did in the consulting groups, this finding confirmed that Submissive, Dramatizing, Egotistic and Conforming scales presented a counter-theory behaviour. Second, the same set of analysis allowed to determine cutting point scores that had the capability for discriminating among participants coming from the non-consulting and the consulting groups. Later, the MMPI-A clinical scales data were analysed through a set of MANOVAS and ANOVAS drawing significant differentiation between the healthy functioning and disorderly functioning groups that were created by dividing the sample on the basis of cutting point scores from each scale. These analyses also confirmed the counter-theory behavior for the scales Submissive, Dramatizing, Egotistic and Conforming found in previous studies in Latin-America. Results showed that healthy functioning groups had higher MACI scores and MMPI-A scores around T 50, which indicated a healthy functioning; vice versa disordered functioning groups presented lower MACI scores and MMPI-A scores around or higher than T 60, which is an indicator of pathological functioning. The interpretation of these results was done considering the cultural syndrome of individualism and collectivism which reflects shared attitudes, beliefs, norms, roles and values among people belonging to a specific cultural group. According to Triandis (2001), the central theme shared by collectivist individuals is the conception of themselves as aspects of groups or collectivities, on the other hand, the individualism central theme is the conception of the individuals as autonomous from groups. Collectivist adolescents are likely to define themselves by giving priority to in-group goals, they pay less attention to internal than external processes as determinant of social behavior, and they define the relationship with the in-group members as communal. Collectivist personal traits, affect the personality functioning of adolescents coming from Latin-American countries in two aspects: They are reflected in elevations of the Dramatizing and Egotistic scales by integrating specific characteristics related to externalized, affective and warm social interactions; also they are reflected in elevations of the Submissive and Conforming scales by emphasizing specific characteristics related to the respect for the group norms and rules and keeping group harmony. At the end of the study, a bipolar clinical interpretation criteria, that includes the possibility of pathological functioning in very low and very high scores, is offered for each scale to be used as a guide for interpreting these MACI scores in the context of adolescence within the Latino-American culture.

Psicopatía infanto-juvenil: avances en conceptualización, evaluación e intervención: [revisión] / Child and juvenile psychopathy: advances in conceptualization, assessment and intervention: [review]

Considerando las necesidades actuales presentes en el trabajo psicológico con adolescentes con problemas de adaptación social, este artículo realiza una revisión teórica actualizada sobre el constructo de psicopatía infanto-juvenil. Se abordan aspectos relacionados con la definición y extensión del constructo, los instrumentos de evaluación disponibles, los factores de riesgo y las perspectivas de tratamiento y prevención. En la discusión se ponderan las diferentes aproximaciones conceptuales, se plantea la conveniencia de desarrollar tanto instrumentos comprehensivos como de evaluación específica, ajustados a nuestro contexto sociocultural, y se destaca la necesidad de iniciar estudios sobre intervención que consideren las características de personalidad que están involucradas en el constructo.

Considering the current needs present in the psychological approach to adolescents with social adjustment problems, this article presents an actualized theoretical review about the construct of child and juvenile psychopathy. The topics included in the revision are the construct definition and extension, the tools for assessment that are available, the risk factors and different approaches to intervention. The discussion weights the different approaches to conceptualization, it points the convenience for studying general and specific assessments tools adjusted to our socio-cultural context, and it remarks the need for studying interventions that include the personality characteristics involved in the psychopathy construct.

Efectividad de la psicoterapia y su relación con la alianza terapéutica / Effectiveness of the psychotherapy and its relation with the therapeutic alliance

En este estudio se evalúa la efectividad de la psicoterapia individual realizada por terapeutas noveles en la Clínica Psicológica de la Universidad de La Frontera (Temuco - Chile) y su relación con la alianza terapéutica. La investigación es de carácter cuantitativo, con diseño de grupo único y evaluaciones al inicio y término de la terapia. En el estudio participaron 23 consultantes, cuyos procesos psicoterapéuticos eran conducidos por 11 estudiantes de los últimos niveles de la Carrera de Psicología, que realizaban su primera experiencia en atención psicoterapéutica supervisada, o se encontraban efectuando su práctica profesional. Los instrumentos utilizados fueron las versiones adaptadas para Chile del Outcome Questionnaire (OQ-45.2) de De la Parra y Von Bergen (2000, 2002) que permite evaluar el nivel de cambio en el curso de la terapia y sus resultados finales y del Working Alliance Inventory (Inventario de Alianza de Trabajo, IAT-P) de Santibáñez (2001) que evalúa la alianza terapéutica desde la perspectiva del paciente. Los resultados informan diferencias significativas entre la primera y última aplicación del OQ-45.2. Los puntajes obtenidos en el IAT-P están ubicados en los dos tercios superiores de la escala, observándose una restricción de rango con sesgo positivo. Se evidencia una asociación significativa entre la alianza terapéutica percibida por el paciente y el resultado de la psicoterapia, tanto en el puntaje total de la escala OQ-45.2, como en la Subescala de Síntomas. Estos resultados son discutidos considerando la investigación actual en el área y el trabajo realizado por terapeutas noveles.

The present study was aimed to assess the effectiveness of individual psychotherapy undertaken at the Psychological Clinic of the Universidad de La Frontera (Temuco, Chile) and its relationship with the therapeutic alliance. The investigation involved 23 adult patients with neurotic symptoms. Their therapeutic processes were carried out by 11 trainee students from the regular psychology training program. Out of these, 4 therapists were performing their first supervised psychotherapeutic experience, and 7 therapists were undertaking their professional training using either a psychodynamic or a humanistic- experiential approach. The therapeutic processes considered in this study lasted between 5 and 42 sessions, comprising the following closure modalities: agreed closure between the patient and therapist because of the fulfillment of objectives, closure requested by the patient, and withdrawal of the therapeutic process. The instruments used were the Outcome Questionnaire (OQ-45.2) adapted for Chilean population by De la Parra and Von Bergen (2000, 2002), an instrument that allows to evaluate the level of change in the final course of the therapy and its outcomes; and the Working Alliance Inventory (Inventario de Alianza Terapéutica, IAT-P) adapted for Chilean population by Santibánez (2001), an instrument that evaluates the level of therapeutic alliance from the perspective of the patient. The study was quantitative in nature, with a unique group design and evaluations at the beginning and at the end of the therapy. For each patient, the OQ-45.2 was administered at the end of the first, and after the last psychotherapy session. In addition, the IAT-P was administered once, at the fourth session. In order to assess the pre-post psychotherapy differences, a samples-related t test was performed. In addition, a Reliable Change Index was calculated using scores of the first and final OQ-45.2 administration; and finally, the percentage of patients with clinically significant change, was estimated. The administration of the IAT-P showed a restriction of range with positive bias both, on overall total scale scores as well on each subscale score. For this reason, using the median, two subgroups for the overall IAT were created. Also, two subgroups were generated for each subscale: a subgroup of subjects with scores higher than the median and a subgroup of subjects with scores below the median. Then, by using the Mann-Whitney U test, the Reliable Change Index from the groups with high or low levels of alliance were compared. Results of this study showed significant differences between the first and last application of the OQ-45.2. In order to estimate whether the change was clinically significant, cut-off scores and Reliable Change Index were used. In the OQ-45.2 scale, 17 patients left the clinical group, 12 people met the Reliable Change Index criterion, and 8 people showed a clinically significant change. In relation to the closure modality, 7 patients with clinically significant change ended the psychotherapy with a discharge given by the therapist, while one requested the closure of the therapy. Scores from the IAT-P were located in the upper two thirds of the scale. The Bond Subscale had the highest mean, while Tasks and Goals got a slightly lower value. With respect to the main issue, it was found a significant association between therapeutic alliance and the outcome of the psychotherapy both, on overall total scale scores of the OQ-45.2 as well Symptoms Scale of the same instrument. Results showed that the alliance between therapist and the patient especially helped to reduce patient's symptoms. In addition, it was evident that students in training were able to establish good alliance with their patients, and thus to promote the achievement of the therapeutic outcome. These results are discussed taking into account current research on this topic.

Adolescentes con trastorno por consumo de sustancias: Una caracterización de personalidad a través de las normas chilenas del MACI / Application of Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory (MACI) to drug abuser adolescents

Background: Adolescence is the most vulnerable development stage to start drug abuse in our country. Moreover, adolescent personality may be an individual rísk factor for drug abuse. Aim: To characterize the personality of adolescent drug abusers using the Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory (MACI) and its Chilean norms. Patients and methods: Adolescents consulting in a mental health facility were studied. MACI was applied to 46 subjects, aged 16 ± 1 years (30 males) with a history of drug abuse and compared with 58 peers aged 15 ± 2 years (34 males) without such history. Results: Male and female drug abuser adolescents had a transgressor type of personality. Males had a high degree of sociability and unrestrained sexuality while females present signs of sexual abuse, suicide rísk, and a more severe personality disorder. Conclusions: The personality traits detected in this group of drug abuser adolescents using Chilean norms is similar to those detected abroad and should help to plan rehabilitation.

Normas chilenas para el MACI: una integración de criterios categoriales y dimensionales / Chilean norms for MACI: an integration of categorical and dimensional criteria

Este estudio desarrolló normas chilenas para el Inventario Clínico para Adolescentes de Millon (MACI)utilizando una muestra de baremación diferenciada por sexo y dicotomizada en dos grupos, no-consultantes(200 hombres y 206 mujeres) y consultantes (212 hombres y 189 mujeres), que respondió el MACI y elMMPI-A. Con los datos MACI se desarrolló un conjunto de análisis estadísticos de validez diagnóstica en etapas sucesivas que dio lugar a la categorización de las escalas MACI en Acordes con la Teoría (AT), Contra-Teóricas (CT) y No-Diferenciadoras, y a la determinación de puntajes de corte entre funcionamiento sano y alterado. Para las escalas AT y CT se diseñó una escala de baremación de 100 puntos cuyo puntaje central (PT 50) correspondió al puntaje de corte de cada escala. Las escalas ND fueron baremadas en percentiles. La discusión de resultados analiza aspectos psicométricos y de evaluación clínica considerando el contexto latinoamericano y la integración de estos resultados en el modelo teórico de Millon.

This study aimed at building Chilean normative criteria for the Mllon Adolescent Clinical Inventory (MACI) using a normative sample divided by sex, and into a non-consulting group (200 males and 206 females), and a clinical group (212 males and 189 females) that answered the MACI and the MMPI-A. Using MACI scales data, a set of statistical analysis for diagnostic validity were run through successive stages. Results indicated that MACI scales could be classified into Agreement with Theory (AT), Counter-Theory (CT); and Non-Discriminative (ND) scales; also a cutting point score between healthy functioning and disordered functioning was determined. To build norms for the AT and CT scales, a 100-point measuring scale that had the cutting-point score as the central score (PT 50) was used. Percentile norms were built for the ND scales. Discussion refers to psychometric and clinical assessment features attending to Latin-American cultural context and their integration into the Mllon's theoretical model.

Evaluación psicométrica del inventario multifásico de personalidad de Minnesota para adolescentes (MMPI-A) en muestras chilenas / Psychometric evaluation for the Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory for adolescent (MMPI-A) in chilean samples

Este artículo presenta una caracterización psicométrica del Inventario Multifásico de Personalidad de Minnesota para Adolescentes (MMPI-A), instrumento de evaluación clínica que fue traducido y adaptado a los usos del lenguaje y la realidad sociocultural de los adolescentes chilenos a través de un enfoque de comité. El MMPI-A fue aplicado a una muestra de 705 adolescentes, considerando su género y tres ámbitos de procedencia (escolar, clínico y judicial). Se evaluaron las propiedades psicométricas de confiabilidad (estabilidad y consistencia interna) y validez (capacidad de discriminación entre grupos) de sus 38 escalas. Los resultados muestran una prueba estable y consistente, con niveles de confiabilidad semejantes a los obtenidos en estudios foráneos y con adecuada capacidad de discriminación de acuerdo a las variables estudiadas.