Child labor and agricultural production in Colombia / Trabajo infantil y producción agrícola en Colombia

Abstract Introduction: Child labor is a global problem affecting 168 million children and adolescents, of which 98 million are found in the agricultural sector. In Colombia, there were 869 000 child workers in 2017. Objective: To characterize child labor in the agricultural production of rice, coffee, cotton, sugar cane, and panela sugar cane in Colombia. Materials and methods: A qualitative study was conducted from a literature review of studies on child labor, a documentary review on Colombian regulations regarding this phenomenon, and the empirical collection of data through participant observation and the use of interviews. Results: According to the official sources of information, given the level of industrialization and formal employment in the rice, cotton and sugar cane production processes there is no evidence of child labor in said sectors. On the contrary, in the case of coffee and panela sugar cane production, most of agricultural work occurs within a family economy scenario, which causes children and adolescents to work as unpaid family members to support their households. It is worth noting that due to the fact that agricultural work in Colombia takes place in rural areas and under informal economy conditions, there is an underreporting of the number of working children and adolescents in the agricultural sector, and therefore, the capacity of the Colombian state to confront this situation is very limited. Conclusions: The informal economy dynamics of the Colombian agricultural sector constitutes a potential scenario for the occurrence of child labor that requires the development and implementation of a public policy supported by a strong supervision by the State, and an educational strategy that, on the one hand, integrates school education with training options in relation to the agricultural production dynamics, so that children and adolescents attendance to school is encouraged, and, on the other, enables them to plan a life project in the context of agricultural work in rural areas.

Resumen Introducción. El trabajo infantil es un problema mundial que afecta a 168 millones de menores, 98 millones de ellos en el campo de la agricultura. En Colombia, en 2017 se reconocieron 869 000 menores trabajadores. Objetivo. Caracterizar el trabajo infantil en la producción de arroz, café, algodón y caña de azúcar y panelera en Colombia. Materiales y métodos. Estudio cualitativo con revisión documental y recopilación empírica de información a través de observación y entrevistas a actores clave. Resultados. De acuerdo con las fuentes oficiales, dado el nivel de industrialización y de formalización en los procesos productivos del arroz, el algodón y la caña de azúcar, en estos sectores no existe el trabajo infantil; por el contrario, la producción del café y de la panela son actividades económicas principalmente de índole familiar, lo que causa que los niños y adolescentes tengan que desempeñar tareas de apoyo en un marco de trabajo familiar. Cabe resaltar que, debido a que la actividad agrícola en Colombia se desarrolla en áreas rurales y en la informalidad, existe un subregistro de la cantidad de niños, niñas y adolescentes que trabajan en estos sectores, lo que hace que la habilidad del Estado para hacer frente al trabajo infantil en el contexto de la producción agrícola sea muy limitada. Conclusiones. La dinámica productiva agrícola informal en Colombia constituye un escenario potencial para el trabajo infantil, lo cual demanda una política pública con fuerte supervisión del Estado y una estrategia educativa que, por un lado, vincule la formación de niños, niñas y adolescentes con la dinámica agraria en la que cobre sentido mantenerse en lo escolar y, por el otro, permita configurar un proyecto de vida en el campo.

Significados y usos que los habitantes de una vereda en Chigorodó, Antioquia, Colombia, dan a los alimentos que producen / Significance and Uses of Foods Cultivated by Rural Inhabitants of Chigorodó, Antioquia, Colombia

Antecedentes: la agricultura familiar se reconoce como una práctica importante para que las poblaciones mejoren el acceso a alimentos propios y los ingresos, y contribuyan a la seguridad alimentaria en su región. Objetivo: conocer los significados y usos dados por los habitantes de una vereda del municipio de Chigorodó, Antioquia, a los alimentos que producen. Materiales y métodos: investigación cualitativa basada en etnografía enfocada. Los datos se recolectaron mediante entrevistas semiestructuradas a 14 participantes, observación participante y elaboración de mapas de los predios. La información obtenida se transcribió, leyó y codificó, identificando aspectos significativos, relaciones entre los datos, hasta conformar categorías preliminares y emergentes, que fueron validadas con los participantes. Resultados: las razones para cultivar incluyen vocación, tradición familiar y necesidad del sustento. Vivir en el campo se relaciona con felicidad, tranquilidad y salud. Los alimentos más cultivados son plátano, mango, limón, coco, guayaba; además se crían animales. Los participantes dan a lo producido usos alimentarios, cosméticos, medicinales y de aseo; algunos productos también se venden o intercambian. Conclusión: los alimentos producidos aportan a la soberanía alimentaria y a la economía familiar, tienen usos que reflejan diversos saberes; se resalta el papel protagónico de la mujer en la agricultura familiar.

Background: Family farming is a practice that makes it possible for the population to obtain food and income while contributing to the food security of their region. Objective: To understand the significance and uses that the inhabit¬ants of a rural settlement, located in the Chigorodó municipality in the Department of Antioquia, place on the food they grow. Materials and Methods: A qualitative study, based on focused ethnography, in which data were collected via active observation, semi-structured interviews administered to 14 participants, and property mapping. The data were transcribed, read and coded. Significant aspects and data relationships were identified. Preliminary and emergent categories were consolidated and the results were validated with the participants. Results: Among the reasons for growing food, the following stand out: vocation, tradition, and need to support one's family. Additionally, living in the countryside is associated with happiness, tranquility and health. The most common types of food produced are: plantain, mango, lime, coconut and guava. In addition, they also raise animals. Household use the foods and products they cultivate for food, cosmetics, medicine, and cleaning. Outside the household these products are sold and traded. Furthermore, people express diverse knowledge on the medicinal and cosmetic uses of plants as well as on how to grow them. Conclusions: Growing food contributes to the food security of these households and their family economy. Likewise, the leading role of women is highlighted in this activity. Finally, a diverse body of everyday knowledge was observed in this study.

Determinación de enteroparásitos en Lactuca sativa en fincas dedicadas a su producción en Pasto, Colombia / Enteroparasite determination in Lactuca sativa from farms dedicated to its production in Pasto, Colombia

Resumen Introducción. Actualmente se recomienda incluir en la dieta diaria verduras como la lechuga por su gran aporte nutricional; sin embargo, atraídos por tales beneficios, los consumidores pueden estar expuestos a infecciones con parásitos intestinales. Objetivo. Determinar la presencia o ausencia de enteroparásitos en la lechuga (Lactuca sativa) cultivada en la zona rural del municipio de Pasto y, una vez caracterizados los predios, analizar los factores asociados. Materiales y métodos. Se hizo un estudio transversal doble ciego de tipo descriptivo. Se tomaron 105 muestras de 21 predios entre junio y diciembre de 2013 y se procesaron mediante pruebas de flotación y sedimentación. Además, se encuestó a los propietarios de los predios para obtener información sobre las variables que pudieran determinar la aparición de enteroparásitos. Resultados. Se encontró contaminación con huevos y larvas de parásitos en 100 % de las muestras: 95,25 % con quistes de Entamoeba spp.; 71,43% con ooquistes de Isospora spp.; 61,90% con larvas (L3) de Strongyloides stercoralis; 28,57 % con huevos de Toxocara spp., y 4,76 % con ooquistes de Eimeria spp. En cuanto a los factores asociados según la prueba de ji al cuadrado, se encontró relación entre Entamoeba spp. y las acequias (p=0,008), los perros (p=0,008) y los pozos sépticos (p=0,029); entre Isospora spp. y el compost (p=0,0001), los perros (p=0,0001) y las babosas (p=0,002); entre S. stercoralis y la manipulación (p=0,003), y entre Toxocara spp. y el hecho de no utilizar biodigestores (p=0,002). Conclusiones. En las áreas de cultivo del municipio de Pasto se encontró contaminación de las muestras de lechuga con enteroparásitos provenientes principalmente de reservorios animales y humanos, aunque también presentes en el medio ambiente.

Abstract Introduction: Currently, vegetables like lettuce are widely recommended as part of the daily diet given their high nutritional value; however, while consumers feel attracted to the benefits provided by the vegetable, they may also be exposed to parasitic intestinal infections. Objective: To determine the presence or absence of enteroparasites in lettuce (Lactuca sativa) grown in the rural area in the municipality of Pasto, and to analyze associated factors based on the characterization of the lands. Materials and methods: We conducted a descriptive double blind cross-sectional study. We took a total of 105 samples from 21 properties from June to December, 2013, and we processed them by sedimentation and flotation tests. Additionally, the owners were surveyed in order to obtain information about the possible variables influencing the occurrence of enteroparasites. Results: We detected contamination in 100% of the lettuce samples and we found parasite eggs and larvae as follows: 95.25% with Entamoeba spp. cysts; 71.43% with Isospora spp. oocysts; 61.90% with Strongyloides stercoralis larvae (L3); 28.57% with Toxocara spp. eggs, and 4.76% with Eimeria spp. oocysts. Using the chi-square test we found association between Entamoeba spp. and ditches (p=0.008), dogs (p=0.008) and septic tanks (p=0.029); between Isospora spp. and compost (p=0.0001), dogs (p=0.0001) and slugs (p=0.002); between S. stercoralis and handling (p=0.003), and between Toxocara spp. and no use of biodigesters (p= 0.002). Conclusions: We found contamination with enteroparasites in lettuce samples from growing areas in the municipality of Pasto with animal and human sources as their main reservoirs, although others were present in the environment.

Quality evaluation of gnocchi pasta prepared with orange-fleshed sweet potato / Avaliação da qualidade de massas do tipo nhoque elaboradas com batata-doce de polpa alaranjada

Considering the increase of pasta market and the importance of orange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) nutritional value and economic aspects, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of the addiction of OFSP and potato starch on the physical characteristics of gnocchi pasta during cooking, as well as to determine the chemical and sensory characteristics of the best samples, analyzing them during storage. A central composite rotational 2nd order experimental design was employed to investigate the effects of adding 63.65% to 75.81% OFSP and 35.86% to 64.14% potato starch during the cooking of the pasta. The best treatments were analyzed for acceptability, chemical composition and behavior during storage. The addition of OFSP affected only the cooking time by causing an increase in this value. Moreover, it positively contributed to the acceptability of the product, especially the color, as well as to the increase of the fiber and ash contents. It is recommended to consume immediately after preparation. If storage is necessary, the refrigeration at 4°C is suggested, provided that packaging requirements are met, preferably vacuum packaging.

Frente ao crescente mercado de massas alimentícias e da importância da batata doce de polpa alaranjada (BDPA) por seu valor nutritivo e aspectos econômicos, este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar o efeito da adição de BDPA e fécula de batata nas características físicas de massas do tipo nhoque durante o cozimento, bem como determinar as características químicas e sensoriais das melhores amostras caracterizando-as durante seu armazenamento. Utilizou-se um delineamento central composto rotacional de 2ª ordem para investigar os efeitos da adição de 63,65% a 75,81% de BDPA e de 35,86% a 64,14% de fécula de batata durante a cocção das massas. Os melhores tratamentos foram analisados quanto a aceitabilidade, composição química e comportamento durante o armazenamento. A adição de BDPA nas massas de nhoque influenciou apenas no tempo de cozimento ocasionando aumento deste valor. Além disso, contribuiu positivamente para a aceitabilidade do produto, em especial à cor, bem como para o aumento dos teores de resíduo mineral e fibras. Recomenda-se que o consumo seja imediato, após o preparo. Sendo necessário o armazenamento, sugere-se que sejam mantidos sob refrigeração a 4°C, desde que sejam respeitadas as condições de embalagem, de preferência à vácuo.

Produção e potencial agrícolas de alimentos destinados à alimentação escolar em Goiás e no Distrito Federal, na Região Centro-Oeste do Brasil / Agricultural production and potential and foods intended for schools in Goiás and Distrito Federal, located in the Midwest Region of Brazil

OBJETIVO: Caracterizar a produção e o potencial produtivo de hortaliças, frutas e frutos nativos do Cerrado, em Goiás e no Distrito Federal, com vistas à sua inserção na alimentação escolar, conforme a Lei Federal nº 11.947/2009. MÉTODOS: Foi realizado estudo quantitativo descritivo durante 2009, em cinco mesorregiões de Goiás e no Distrito Federal. Para produção agrícola, consideraram-se dados do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística e estimativas de produção de 2003-2007. Obteve-se o potencial agrícola a partir da temperatura média anual por mesorregião e faixas de temperaturas ótimas por cultura. Os alimentos selecionados foram classificados em escala de produção (menor, média ou alta) e potencial agrícola (ótimo, médio ou baixo). RESULTADOS: Foi observado que a produção de frutas e hortaliças concentrou-se no Centro, Leste e Sul do Estado, enquanto o Noroeste e Norte apresentaram menor aproveitamento produtivo. As culturas mais exploradas foram limão, alface, manga, banana e caju. O Distrito Federal teve menor aproveitamento do potencial produtivo em relação a três mesorregiões de Goiás (sem corrigir o índice para área real cultivada). Identificou-se a carência de dados oficiais sobre os frutos do Cerrado. CONCLUSÃO: O estudo mostrou as diferenças regionais quanto à produção de alimentos viáveis à alimentação escolar e também destacou o potencial produtivo a ser alcançado, considerando o desenvolvimento sustentável.

OBJECTIVE: This study investigated the production and production potential of vegetables, fruits and native Cerrado fruits in Goiás and Distrito Federal, for their inclusion in the school menu as determined by the Law 11.947/2009. METHODS: A descriptive, quantitative study was done in 2009 in five mesoregions of Goiás and in Distrito Federal. The agricultural production was determined using data from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics and production estimates from 2003-2007. The estimated agricultural potential was based on the mean annual temperature of each mesoregion and optimal temperature ranges for each culture. The selected foods were classified according to production scale (small, average or high) and agricultural potential (excellent, average or low). RESULTS: The production of fruits and vegetables occurred mainly in the central, southern and eastern regions of the state, while the northeast and northern regions were less exploited. The most common cultures were lime, lettuce, mango, banana and cashew. The production potential of the Distrito Federal was less exploited than that of three mesoregions of Goiás (without correcting the index for the actual cultivated area). Also, there is a scarcity of official data on Cerrado fruits. CONCLUSION: This study showed the differences in regional production of viable foods for the school menu and highlighted the productive potential of the region, taking sustainable development into account.

Avaliação das concentrações de nitrato e nitrito em hortaliças produzidas em Ccltivos convencional e orgânico na Região do Vale do Taquari ? RS / Nitrate and nitrite determination in vegetables produced in conventional and organic farming in the Region of Taquari Valley- RS

Ao longo dos últimos anos é crescente a preocupação com a qualidade de vida e a preservação da saúde. A cultura orgânica, diante da tendência ao consumo de alimentos mais saudáveis, visa produzir alimentos sem a adição de agrotóxicos ou qualquer produto químico. Esta agricultura tem-se intensificado, pois contraria a agricultura convencional, cujo objetivo principal é a utilização intensiva de terras e de tecnologias que acarreta em um grande uso de fertilizantes, inseticidas e herbicidas. As hortaliças são componentes importantes em uma dieta saudável, ajudando a diminuir o risco de determinadas doenças, além de favorecer o trânsito intestinal e proporcionar efeito antioxidante no organismo. No entanto, estas hortaliças possuem nitrato e nitrito, componentes naturais, precursores de algumas formas de câncer e da metahemoglobinemia. Portanto, este trabalho teve como objetivo comparar a concentração de nitrato e nitrito em hortaliças, como beterraba, cenoura, espinafre e repolho, cultivados de forma convencional e orgânica. A determinação de nitrato e nitrito foi baseada na metodologia oficial do Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento e os resultados foram comparados através do Statistica® for Windows versão 7.0. O nitrito foi encontrado na beterraba e no espinafre e o nitrato ocorreu em todas as amostras analisadas. Todos os vegetais apresentaram médias de valores superiores a 1000 mg/kg, portanto foram classificados como hortaliças com alto conteúdo de nitrato. Houve diferença significativa entre os níveis de nitrato dos vegetais da agricultura convencional para a orgânica, mostrando que o consumo de hortaliças orgânicas favorece uma menor ingestão destes elementos.

In recent years there is a concern about the quality of life and public health. The organic farming aims to produce organic foods without pesticides due to the trend towards consumption of healthier foods. This type of farming contradicts the conventional farming, whose main objective is the intensive use of land, technology and fertilizers, insecticides and herbicides. Vegetables are important components in a healthy diet, since they minimize some disease risks, promote intestinal function and provide antioxidant effects in the body. However, these vegetables contain nitrate and nitrite, natural compounds, precursors of some forms of cancer and methemoglobinaemia. This study aimed to compare the concentration of nitrate and nitrite in vegetables such as beets, carrots, spinach and cabbage, grown in conventional and organic production. The determination of nitrate and nitrite was based on the official methodology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Food Supply and the results were evaluated using the Statistica® for Windows version 7.0. Nitrite was found in beets and spinach and nitrate was found in all the samples. All plants showed high content of nitrate, which exceeded 1000 mg/kg. There were significant differences between the levels of nitrate from conventional farming to organic one, which shows that the intake of organic vegetables benefits a lower intake of these elements.

Poluição da queima de cana e sintomas respiratórios em escolares de Monte Aprazível, SP / Sugar cane burning pollution and respiratory symptoms in schoolchildren in Monte Aprazível, Southeastern Brazil / Polución de la quema de caña y síntomas respiratorios en escolares de Monte Aprazível, Sureste de Brasil

OBJETIVO: Estimar a prevalência de sintomas respiratórios e analisar fatores associados, bem como medidas de pico de fluxo expiratório em escolares. MÉTODOS: Estudo descritivo transversal com escolares de dez a 14 anos de Monte Aprazível, SP. Foram aplicados questionários sobre sintomas de asma e de rinite do protocolo International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood, questões sociodemográficas, fatores predisponentes e antecedentes pessoais e familiares. Foram realizadas medidas repetidas do pico de fluxo expiratório nas crianças e dos níveis de concentração de material particulado (MP2,5) e de black carbon. RESULTADOS: A prevalência de sintomas de asma foi de 11 por cento e de 33,2 por cento de rinite; 10,6 por cento apresentaram mais de quatro crises de sibilos nos últimos 12 meses. Antecedentes familiares para bronquite e rinite associaram-se à presença de asma (p = 0,002 e p < 0,001) e de rinite atuais (p < 0,001 e p < 0,001, respectivamente). Para rinite, houve associação com presença de mofo ou rachadura na casa (p = 0,009). Houve maior freqüência de rinite nos meses de junho a outubro, período de safra da cana de açúcar. Prevalência diária de pico de fluxo expiratório abaixo de 20 por cento da mediana de medidas na criança foi maior em dias com maior concentração de MP2,5. CONCLUSÕES: A prevalência de sintomas de asma está abaixo e a de rinite está acima da média nacional. Ainda que dentro dos níveis aceitáveis, a poluição nos períodos de queima da palha da cana-de-açúcar pode contribuir para a exacerbação de episódios de asma e de rinite.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of respiratory symptoms and to analyze associated factors as well as peak expiratory flow measurements in schoolchildren. METHODS: This is a descriptive cross-sectional study with schoolchildren aged 10-14 from the city of Monte Aprazível (Southeastern Brazil). Questionnaires containing the asthma and rhinitis components of the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood were administered. The questionnaires also approached sociodemographic characteristics, predisposing factors, and family and personal medical history. Repeated measures of peak expiratory flow in the children, and of black carbon and particulate matter (PM2,5) concentration levels were carried out. RESULTS: The prevalence of asthma and rhinitis symptoms was 11 percent and 33.2 percent, respectively. Among asthmatic children, 10.6 percent presented four or more wheezing attacks in the past 12 months. Past family history of bronchitis and rhinitis was associated with presence of asthma (p=0.002 and p <0.001) and rhinitis (p <0.001 and p<0.001, respectively). Regarding rhinitis, there was association with presence of mold or cracks on the house (p=0.009). Rhinitis was most frequent from June to October, a period that matches the sugarcane harvest season. Daily prevalence of peak expiratory flow below 20 percent of the median of each child's measurements was higher in days with greater PM2,5 concentration. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of asthma symptoms is below and that of rhinitis is above the national average. Although within acceptable levels, pollution in the cane trash burn season may contribute to the exacerbation of asthma and rhinitis episodes.

OBJETIVO: Estimar la prevalencia de síntomas respiratorios y analizar factores asociados, así como medidas de pico de flujo expiratorio en escolares. MÉTODOS: Estudio descriptivo transversal con escolares de diez a 14 años de Monte Aprazível, Sureste de Brasil. Se aplicaron cuestionarios sobre síntomas de asma y de rinitis del protocolo International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood, preguntas sociodemográficas, factores predisponentes y antecedentes personales y familiares. Se realizaron medidas repetidas del pico de flujo expiratorio en los niños y de los niveles de concentración de material particulado (MP2,5) y de black carbon. RESULTADOS: La prevalencia de síntomas de asma fue de 11 por ciento y de 33,2 por ciento de rinitis, 10,6 por ciento presentaron más de cuatro crisis de silbidos en los últimos 12 meses. Antecedentes familiares para bronquitis y rinitis se asociaron a la presencia de asma (p=0,002 y p<0,001) y de rinitis actuales (p<0,001 y p<0,001, respectivamente). Para rinitis, hubo asociación con la presencia de moho o rajadura en la casa (p=0,009). Hubo mayor frecuencia de rinitis en los meses de junio a octubre, período de cosecha de caña de azúcar. Prevalencia diaria de pico de flujo expiratorio debajo de 20 por ciento de la mediana de medidas en el niño fue mayor en días con mayor concentración de MP2,5. CONCLUSIONES: La prevalencia de síntomas de asma está por debajo y la de rinitis está por encima del promedio nacional. A pesar de estar dentro de los niveles aceptables, la polución en los períodos de quema de paja de caña de azúcar puede contribuir en la exacerbación de episodios de asma y de rinitis.

Metodología para seleccionar zonas de intervención con cultivos biofortificados / Methodology for selecting areas for biofortified crop intervention

OBJETIVO: Identificar zonas geográficas de América Latina y el Caribe para la biofortificación de cultivos básicos como frijol, maíz, arroz, yuca y batata, contribuyendo así a reducir las deficiencias nutricionales en la Región. MÉTODO: Se generó un sistema de información geográfica (SIG) que incluyó registros sobre riesgos nutricionales, producción de cultivos, consumos alimenticios, y datos demográficos y socioeconómicos para 11 países de la Región. Se realizaron cuatro estudios de caso (en Guatemala, México, Bolivia y Colombia) basados en un análisis exploratorio y descriptivo de mapas temáticos, y su superposición y comparación para buscar patrones espaciales e identificar zonas candidatas de intervención. RESULTADOS: En Guatemala, las mayores tasas de riesgos nutricionales, producción de frijol y densidad poblacional coincidieron en las regiones Nororiental y Suroriental. En México, la distribución espacial de los niveles más altos de riesgos nutricionales, pobreza y producción de maíz se concentraron en los municipios del centro y sur. En Bolivia la producción de frijol tendió a situarse en el este del país, y el riesgo nutricional en el oeste. En Colombia, tanto los riesgos nutricionales como la producción de yuca mostraron una gran dispersión geográfica. CONCLUSIONES: Para Guatemala se propone la biofortificación con hierro del frijol en el sur de la región Nororiental y en la Suroriental, en México, la biofortificación del maíz con aminoácidos en los municipios productores del centro y sur del país; para Bolivia, una intervención con frijol biofortificado con hierro y zinc en zonas productoras de Santa Cruz, Chuquisaca y Tarija; y en Colombia, la biofortificación de yuca con β-caroteno en los departamentos de Córdoba y Cundinamarca.

OBJECTIVE: To identify geographical areas in Latin America and the Caribbean where biofortification of staple crops, such as beans, corn, rice, cassava, and sweet potatoes, might help reduce nutritional deficiencies in the Region. METHODS: A geographic information system (GIS) was produced with records on nutritional risks, crop production, food consumption, and demographic and socioeconomic data, for 11 countries in the Region. Four case studies were conducted (in Bolivia, Colombia, Guatemala, and Mexico) using exploratory and descriptive analysis of thematic maps that were superimposed and compared to reveal overlapping and spatial patterns, thereby identifying areas suited to intervention. RESULTS: In Guatemala, the highest rates of nutritional risk, bean production, and population density overlapped in the northeast and southeast areas. In Mexico, spatial distribution of the highest risk levels for nutrition, poverty, and corn production were concentrated in the central and southern municipalities. In Bolivia, bean production tended to be in the eastern part of the country, and nutritional risk, in the west. In Colombia, both nutritional risk and cassava production showed wide geographic dispersion. CONCLUSIONS: For Guatemala, we propose iron biofortification of beans in the southern parts of the northeast and southeast; for Mexico, amino-acid biofortification of corn in the central and southern municipalities that produce it; for Bolivia, iron and zinc biofortification of beans in the bean-producing areas of Santa Cruz, Chuquisaca, and Tarija; and for Colombia, β-carotene biofortification of cassava in the Cordoba and Cundinamarca departments.