El problema etiológico de los delirios en la esquizofrenia para la neuropsiquiatría actual / The Etiological Problem of Psychotic Delusions in Current Neuropsychiatry / O problema etiológico dos delírios na esquizofrenia para a neuropsiquiatria atual

Introducción: el delirio constituye uno de los síntomas más complejos y severos de la psicosis. Uno de los problemas más fundamentales que enfrenta la investigación en el campo de la neuropsiquiatría tiene que ver con el desafío de producir teorías explicativas para la producción de este tipo de estado mental, a lo que se denomina problema etiológico de los delirios psicóticos. Desarrollo: se analizan críticamente las principales alternativas dentro de la neuropsiquiatría contemporánea al problema etiológico en el contexto de la esquizofrenia. Conclusión: el análisis indica que las tres teorías fundamentales que conviven en la actualidad poseen problemas para avanzar en el desafío de explicar la etiología de los delirios. Por lo anterior, se propone la idea de que, a la luz del estado del debate reciente, la hibridación teórica podría perfilarse como el mejor candidato metodológico para generar progreso real en la disciplina

Introduction: Delusions constitute one of the most complex and severe symptoms of psychosis. One of the most fundamental problems within current research in neuropsychiatry has to do with the challenge of producing explanatory theories of the aetiology of the phenomenon. I call this the etiological problem of psychotic delusions. Development: The main alternatives to the etiological problem in schizophrenia in current neuropsychiatry are critically assessed. Conclusion: The three current co-existing approaches possess a number of problems to make real progress in the etiological debate. For this reason, I suggest that, in light of the current state of the art, theoretical hybridization could become the best methodologi- cal candidate to make progress within the target debate

Introdução: o delírio é um dos sintomas mais complexos e graves da psicose. Um dos problemas mais fundamentais enfrentados atualmente pelas pesquisas no campo da neuropsiquiatria diz respeito ao desafio de produzir teorias explicativas para a produção desse tipo de estado mental, que chamo de o problema etiológico dos delírios psicóticos. Desenvolvimento: são analisadas criticamente as principais alternativas da neuropsiquiatria contemporânea ao problema etiológico no contexto da esquizofrenia. Conclusão: a análise indica que as três teorias fundamentais que coexistem atualmente têm problemas para avançar no desafio de explicar a etiologia dos delírios. Portanto, propõe-se a ideia de que, à luz do estado atual do debate, a hibridação teórica poderia surgir como o melhor candidato metodológico para gerar um progresso real na disciplina.

La hipótesis de la saliencia aberrante: unificando la neurobiología y la fenomenología de la esquizofrenia / A hipótese da saliência aberrante: unificando a neurobiologia e a fenomenologia da esquizofrenia / The aberrant salience hypothesis: Unifying the neurobiology and phenomenology of schizophrenia / L'hypothèse de la saillance aberrante: unifier la neurobiologie et la phénoménologie de la schizophrénie

Introducción: La popularización del reduccionismo neurobiológico en psicopatología conlleva la idea de que la esquizofrenia puede entenderse simplemente como el producto de alteraciones en el funcionamiento cerebral. Por otro lado, y criticando esta tradición, el enfoque fenomenológico propone que la esquizofrenia debería entenderse como un trastorno del yo. Si bien ambas tradiciones son relevantes en la actualidad, creemos que una comprensión completa del fenómeno psicótico envuelve una integración de ambas. Objetivo: Este artículo plantea que la hipótesis de la saliencia aberrante es un buen candidato para unificar la tradición fenomenológica y la neuropsiquiátrica en el estudio de la esquizofrenia. Procedimiento: Luego de examinar la hipótesis en cuestión en profundidad, exploramos la forma en que podría explicar algunos de los síntomas positivos de la esquizofrenia de forma consistente con sus descripciones fenomenológicas. Conclusiones: Finalmente, se ofrecen algunas consideraciones generales respecto de las consecuencias de nuestro análisis para el campo de la psicopatología.

Introdução: A popularização do reducionismo neurobiológico na psicopatologia traz a ideia de que a esquizofrenia pode ser entendida simplesmente como o produto de alterações na função cerebral. Por outro lado, e criticando essa tradição, a abordagem fenomenológica propõe que a esquizofrenia seja entendida como uma desordem do eu. Embora ambas as tradições sejam relevantes hoje, acreditamos que uma compreensão completa do fenômeno psicótico envolve uma integração de ambas. Objetivo: Este artigo argumenta que a hipótese da saliência aberrante é uma boa candidata para unificar as tradições fenomenológica e neuropsiquiátrica no estudo da esquizofrenia. Procedimento: Depois de examinar a hipótese em questão em profundidade, exploramos como ela pode explicar alguns dos sintomas positivos da esquizofrenia de maneira consistente com suas descrições fenomenológicas. Conclusões: Por fim, são oferecidas algumas considerações gerais sobre as consequências de nossa análise para o campo da psicopatologia.

Background: The popularization of neurobiological reductionism in psychopathology involves the idea that schizophrenia can be fully understood as the mere product of brain-functioning alterations. Criticizing this tradition, the phenomenological approach proposes that schizophrenia should be understood as a self-disturbance. Although both traditions are relevant, we believe that a comprehensive understanding of schizophrenia involves the integration of these two frameworks. Aim: This article proposes that the aberrant salience hypothesis is a good candidate for unifying the phenomenological tradition with the neuropsychiatric approach to psychosis. Methods: After examining the aberrant salience hypothesis in detail, we explore the way in which it can explain the positive symptoms of schizophrenia respecting being consistent with their phenomenological descriptions. Conclusion: we conclude with some considerations about the consequences of our analysis for the field of psychopathology.

Introduction: L'idéal du réductionnisme neurobiologique en psychopathologie implique l'idée que la schizophrénie peut être comprise simplement comme le produit d'altérations du fonctionnement cérébral. D'autre part, et critiquant cette tradition, l'approche phénoménologique propose que la schizophrénie soit comprise comme un trouble de soi. Bien que les deux traditions soient pertinentes aujourd'hui, nous pensons qu'une compréhension complète du phénomène psychotique implique une intégration des deux. Objectif: Cet article soutient que l'hypothèse de la saillance aberrante est un bon candidat pour unifier les traditions phénoménologique et neuropsychiatrique dans l'étude de la schizophrénie. Procédure: Après avoir examiné en profondeur l'hypothèse en question, nous explorons comment elle pourrait expliquer certains des symptômes positifs de la schizophrénie d›une manière cohérente avec leurs descriptions phénoménologiques. Conclusions: Enfin, quelques considérations générales sont proposées concernant les conséquences de notre analyse pour le domaine de la psychopathologie.

Eficacia del entrenamiento metacognitivo en una muestra chilena de personas con esquizofrenia / Efficacy of Metacognitive Training in a Chilean Sample of People with Schizophrenia

RESUMEN Introducción: El entrenamiento metacognitivo (EMC) de Moritz et al., una nueva dirección en terapia, es un programa de entrenamiento grupal manualizado, dirigido a corregir los sesgos cognitivos implicados en la formación y el mantenimiento de los síntomas psicóticos, principalmente los delirios. El objetivo de este estudio es evaluar la eficacia del EMC en una muestra chilena de personas con esquizofrenia. Métodos: Se aleatorizó a 50 pacientes ambulatorios del Hospital Del Salvador de Valparaíso, Chile, al grupo de intervención que recibió el EMC o al grupo de control que solo recibió el tratamiento habitual. Se evaluó a los sujetos al inicio y al término del estudio mediante la escala de los síndromes positivo y negativo (PANSS), el cuestionario de sesgos cognitivos para psicosis (CBQ) y la escala de insight cognitivo de Beck (BCIS). Resultados: En el grupo de EMC se registraron mayores mejorías estadísticamente significa tivas, tanto en síntomas y sesgos cognitivos como en insight cognitivo, que en el grupo de control. Al comparar ambos grupos, solo se observaron resultados significativos a favor del EMC en los síntomas positivos. Conclusiones: Los resultados de este estudio indican que el EMC es superior al tratamiento habitual en el tratamiento de los síntomas positivos. No fue posible demostrar su superio ridad en la mejoría de los sesgos cognitivos y el insight cognitivo.

ABSTRACT Introduction: Moritz et al.'s metacognitive training (MCT), a new development of cognitive therapy, is a manualized group training program, designed to correct cognitive biases involved in the formation and maintenance of psychotic symptoms, especially delusions. We report on the efficacy of MCT in a Chilean sample of people with schizophrenia. Methods: 50 outpatients from the Hospital Del Salvador at Valparaíso, Chile, were randomly assigned to the intervention group (MCT), or the control group, that only received treatment as usual (TAU). Subjects were assessed at the beginning and end of the study with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), Cognitive Biases Questionnaire for Psychosis (CBQ-P) and Beck Cognitive Insight Scale (BCIS). Results: In the MCT group, we found larger, statistically significant improvements, in symp toms, cognitive biases and cognitive insight, than in the control group. However, after a direct comparison of both groups, only the improvement in psychotic symptoms for the MCT group, remained significantly different. Conclusions: The results of this study suggest superiority of MCT over TAU in the amelioration of positive symptoms. We could not, however demonstrate its superiority in the improvement of the cognitive biases and cognitive insight.

Los delirios en la anorexia nerviosa. una hipótesis neurobiológica (primera parte) / The Deliriums of nervous anorexia. a neurobiological hypothesis (first part)

La anorexia nerviosa (AN) es una enfermedad muy grave. Tiene un curso crónico y una morbi-mortalidad entre las más altas de las patologías psiquiátricas. Se caracteriza por una firme negativa a aumentar o recuperar peso, un miedo intenso a engordar y distorsiones de la imagen corporal. Estas ideas extrañas, exageradas en muchas ocasiones sorprenden por la firmeza con que son defendidas por las pacientes. “En algunos casos la desnutrición autoprovocada está asociada con creencias sobre la alimentación y la forma del cuerpo que son tan extremas que los psiquiatras las describen como delirantes o cuasi delirantes”. De hecho las características de la enfermedad la hacen comparable con algunos tipos de psicosis. De acuerdo con Bruch existe como un rasgo propio de la enfermedad la “negación delirante de la delgadez”. A lo largo del trabajo se revisa una posible fisiopatología de estas ideas delirantes. Y se las compara con las ideas delirantes presentes en otras patologías. Para ello, en la primera parte del trabajo se describe la AN, su clínica y su fisiopatología. Para luego en la segunda detallar la fisiopatología del síntoma delirio. Y concluir por la descripción de los delirios del tipo que se presentan en la anorexia nerviosa.

Nervous Anorexia (NA) is a very serious disease. It is a chronic condition and ists morbidity is among the highest of psychiatric pathologies. It is characterized by a strong unwilllingness to put on or regain weight, a deep fear to grow fat, and by distortions of the body image. These strange ideas, which in many circumstances are exaggerated, are striking in the sense that they are strongly held by the patients. At times, self-induced malnutrition is associated with beliefs about diet and silhouette, which are so extreme that Psychiatrists describe them as delirious or quasi-delirious. In fact, the characteristics of the disease make it possible to compare it with some types of psychosis. According to Bruch, there is a feature which is characteristic of the disease, namely, "the delirious denial of thinness". In this article, the author does a review of a possible physiopathology of these delirious ideas and compares them with the delirious ideas existing in other pathologies. In order to do so, NA is firstly described, as well as its clinical characteristics and its physiopathology. Then, the physiopathology of the symptoms of delirium is specified. And finally, a description is made of the kinds of deliriums that manifest in this disease.

Diferencias en el estilo atribucional y de la autoestima en una muestra de pacientes delirantes / Comparative analysis of attributional and self-esteem in a sample of patients with delusions and control subjets

Introduction The attributional along with the self-esteem (that plays a central role in the development and maintenance of the pathological state) is a very important mediating element in the delusion, so we find the necessity to realise basic studies of these processes. In the field of psychology, and mainly in the personality area, the atributional has a great relevance, when understanding the causal attributions like mechanisms of facing that guide the conduct of the subject. In this way, we see the importance that supposes the study of the dysfunctional attribution to be able to replace it on the other adaptive, mainly in the pathologies where delusions beliefs exist. In the present investigation the influence has been analyzed that carries out the variable attributional and the self-esteem in the delusional ideas (defined by the 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [DSM-IV] as <

Introducción El estilo atribucional y la autoestima (que cumple un papel central en el desarrollo y mantenimiento del estado patológico) son elementos mediadores muy importantes en el delirio. De ahí la necesidad de realizar estudios básicos de dichos procesos. En el campo de la psicología, y en concreto en el área de personalidad, el estilo atribucional es de gran relevancia al entender las atribuciones causales como mecanismos de afrontamiento que guían la conducta del sujeto. Por ello, la importancia que supone el estudio de la atribución disfuncional para poder sustituirla por otra adaptativa, sobre todo en las patologías donde existen creencias delirantes. En la presente investigación se ha analizado el papel que desempeñan la variable estilo atribucional y la autoestima en las ideas del irantes en una muestra de pacientes delirantes en comparación con un grupo control. Pacientes y métodos En esta investigación se ha examinado la autoestima y los sesgos atribucionales en una muestra de 20 pacientes delirantes (85% son hombres y 15% mujeres de edad media de 36.20 años) ingresados en la unidad de Rehabilitación de un Hospital Psiquiátrico de Santiago de Compostela (España) y se ha comparado con 40 sujetos control normales igualados en edad y sexo con el grupo experimental que no poseen historia psiquiátrica, ni ningún trastorno que requiera tratamiento. Se trata de un estudio comparativo, observacional, transversal y homodémico según la clasificación propuesta por Feinstein y con un diseño de casos y controles. Los instrumentos aplicados en el estudio fueron: a) la Escala de Autoestima de Rosenberg (Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale, EA), b) el Cuestionario de Estilo Atribucional (Attributional Questionnaire, ASQ) y c) la Escala de Síndrome Positivo y Negativo en la Esquizofrenia (Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale for Schizophrenia, PANSS). Todos los instrumentos empleados para el estudio cuentan con sus correspondientes datos de fiabilidad y validez. Resultados Los resultados de esta investigación muestran que los pacientes delirantes realizaron atribuciones más externas para los eventos negativos que el grupo control normal, y más internas para los positivos. Los pacientes delirantes realizaron una atribución causal en estabilidad y globalidad para los sucesos negativos similar a la de los normales. Sin embargo, ante eventos positivos se han encontrado diferencias significativas entre ambos grupos en relación con la estabilidad, no así para la globalidad. Asimismo, los pacientes delirantes, al igual que el grupo control normal, manifestaron una alta autoestima. Conclusión La hipótesis planteada por Bentall no se ha podido constatar en esta investigación, ya que al analizar la variable autoestima observamos que sus puntuaciones son similares al grupo control de sujetos normales. Según el estilo atribucional, se concluye que los sujetos delirantes tienden a culpar por sus fallos y errores a las demás personas o a otras circunstancias. Por el contrario, cuando ellos tienen éxito en alguna situación, consideran que se debe a ellos mismos, y atribuyen los eventos favorables a nivel interno. Las conclusiones del análisis de la dimensión globalidad, la cual determina la generalización temporal de la expectativa, no cumplen la hipótesis en la cual se afirmaba que los sujetos delirantes, al igual que los normales, realizaban atribuciones excesivamente globales tanto para hechos positivos como para negativos, pero no manifiestan un sesgo exagerado hacia la excesiva globalidad.

Psicosis Delirantes Crónicas / Chronic Delirious Psychosis

Los delirios crónicos constituyen una de las unidades de organización de la clínica psiquiátrica moderna tal cual ésta se conformó desde mediados del siglo XIX. En el presente artículo se expone el proceso de surgimiento y diferenciación de estos cuadros clínicos en relación a los diferentes marcos teóricos que permiten su justificación desde el siglo XIX hasta el surgimiento de las clasificaciones globalizantes (DSM y CJE) observando su inclusión o desaparición en las mismas. Posteriormente se presentan las características clínicas de presentación y evolución de sus cuadros más destacados.

Chronic delusions are one of the organization units of modern psychiatry since it took shape around the middle of the 19th century. This paper states the emergence and differentiation process of these clinical manifestations in relation to the different theoretical frameworks that explain them, from the 19th century to the rise of encompassing classifications (DSM and CIE) while pointing out their inclusion or disappearance. Then it exposes the clinical characteristics of the appearance and evolution of its main clinical manifestations.

La alucinación: déficit de percepción / The Hallucination: a perception deficit

Para poder comprender tanto la realidad de la percepción como la de la alucinación es necesario partir de conceptos que, poniendo en cuestión los "de sentido común", hagan posible: a) reconocer la estructura psíquica esencialmente diferente de los fenómenos imaginarios alucinatorios (Henri Ey habla de: "heteronomía"), y b) comprender que esa heteronomía expresa la desorganización del acto perceptivo. Así se evidencia que la alucinación es una "falsa percepción" y no una forma de "más percepción" como se entiende en la serie de los DSM. Por eso Ey dice que la alucinación es esencialmente "fáctica" en el doble sentido de la palabra, de ser un hecho clínico y de caracterizarse por ser una irrupción de irrealidad.

To be able to understand the reality of perception as much as the reality of hallucinations, it is necessary to start from notions that, placing in doubt those of "common sense", make possible: a) recognize the psychic structure essentially different from the imaginary phenomena of hallucination (Henri Ey talks about "heteronomy"), and b) understand that heteronomy express the desorganization of the perceptive act. Thereby, it is showed that the hallucination is a "false perception" and not a way of "further perception", as it is deduced from the series of DSM.

La creatividad y el relato en los diferentes tipos de delirios crónicos: un estudio descriptivo

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Summary Delusions are unreal beliefs out of the boundaries of logic which are not shared by the members of a given culture (APA). Henri Ey classified them into two general groups: acute delusions and chronic delusions. This paper is focused on chronic delusions, which are divided according to different phenomenological features into paranoid, fantastic, and schizophrenic. Paranoid delusions are mainly characterized by high systematization, persecutory theme, and absence of disintegration of the cognitive and personality functions. Fantastic delusions are mainly composed by a great imaginative content that contrasts with the maintenance of objective reality, preservation of cognitive functions, and absence of personality disintegration. Finally, schizophrenic delusions are shaped by incoherence, level of personality disintegration, and cognitive worsening. When delusions are orally expressed, their narrative structure can be analyzed. Siegel defined narrative as a description that joins internal and external experiences; it contrasts histories that give coherence and understanding to an individual living in the world and in time. Ramos stated that narrative is comprised by several elements: theme, order, structure, and an identifiable narrative voice. We suggest that when narrating their experiences, the delusional patients try to give coherence to their internal and external worlds, which have been transformed to the extent that other human beings see these as unreal. We also afirm that in their reconstruction of the world, the individual uses his or her creativity, and that creativity is influenced by the psychotic process or the very own creative qualities of the individual. Chavez defined creativity as the process of generating something, transforming or transcending the existing. This process comprises three overlapping phases: (A) Association-integration: the subject makes associations between elements of the external world and the own subjectivity. During this phase occurs a perceptual, sensorial, cognitive and affective integration. Different levels of consciousness are involved in this phase. (B) Elaboration: the person works with the association building a product, using her or his particular talents and abilities. This phase is conscious and involves volition. (C) Communication: by sharing the work the associations are transmitted and reproduced in others, as well as the sensorial and emotional experience. Communication ends the process at the time that it begins a new creative processes in others. Reality is in consequence understood from a new perspective. The purpose of this study is to describe the narrative structure of different kinds of delusions, and to describe the performance of patients with different kinds of chronic delusions in the Torrance Test for Creative Thinking (TTCT) Figural form. Material and method A descriptive investigation was developed to analyze the narrative structure of each one of the delusions previously mentioned, using a frequency table of linguistic transformations (LT), and the elements to evaluate thought content and cognitive-oral disorders from the Positive and Negative Schizophrenic Symptoms scale (PANSS). Creative thought was measured in each delusional patient with the figural TTCT. Three patients from the Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente were evaluated, each one with a different kind of chronic delusion according to Ey's criterion. Results There is a shorter number of TL in paranoid delusion, and higher severity scores for delusion and suspicion in PANSS. Regarding the figural TTCT, elaboration has a score above percentil 85, and title expressiveness and synthesis are notorious while fluency and originality have scores below percentile 25. In the fantastic delusion some linguistic transformations were found: 5 metaphors and 3 neologisms. Greater severity was found in PANSS for delusion, suspicion, and unusual content items. In the figural TTCT a score above percentile 85 was found in elaboration and abstraction, it also stood out the context articulation and the limits extension. The patient with this delusion got the highest overall score in the figural TTCT. Most of the TL were found in the schizophrenic delusion: this derailment got to the point of incoherence and association by assonance. Grater score of conceptual disorganization was found in severity of PANSS areas. Some dimensions below percentile 25 were found in the figural TTCT: fluency, originality, elaboration, and resistance to premature closing. The patient with this delusion got the lowest global score in the figural TTCT. Different characteristics were present in narrative of the three kinds of delusions -as shown in frequency tables of TL, in cognitive-oral disorders, and in thought content on PANSS. Among these patients there were interesting variations within creative thought in the figural TTCT. Discussion In fantastic and paranoid delusions we found similarities in suspicion and systematization, and also in the elaboration dimension evaluated with the figural TTCT. Elaboration refers to the detail in developing an idea. This may be related to the subject's ability in explaining the how, when, and why of the story present in the delusion. However this is more obvious in the paranoid delusion, where the synthesis dimension is high. Synthesis refers to the ability to connect, combine, and summarize ways of associating things. This same delusion stands out because of its low scoring in originality and fluency in the figural TTCT; the first one tends to appear diminished when elaboration develops in a higher degree. The loss on fluency in creative thought could match personality tightness observed in this kind of patients. Unusual content and limits extension predominate in the fantastic delusion, this has to do with going out of established routes and breaking defined problem limits, which may be related to the unusualness of the narrative theme in this reconstruction of the world implicit in the delusion; that represents a space where even the patient has the need to invent new words. It is interesting to notice the high score in abstraction; understood as the synthesis and organization ability for thought processes it coincides with the use of metaphors. In this delusion the high score in the context articulation, which refers to the clear an powerful communication of the history, could be related to the delusion demarcation that gives the patient the opportunity to function properly in some degree. In the case of schizophrenic delusion it was observed that there is a severe alteration of the cognitive and personality functioning, and also oral incoherence was found as well as an important loss of the dimensions evaluated with the test of creative thinking. Narrative is a phenomenon that integrates different cognitive processes which are transformed by the psychotic condition, where the internal and external worlds of the patient are rebuilt. Creative thinking intervenes in several ways in this reconstruction. Thus, and based on the results from this study, we hypothesize that some characteristics of the narrative of delusions could be related with certain dimensions of creative thinking. Some of these dimensions were affected, others seemed to be more developed than in general population. However, another possibility could be that the creative potential previous to the outcome of the disease could affect the clinical course. This could have implications in the rehabilitation process of these patients. Nevertheless, this has to be tested in future research.