Moving forward in the ethical consideration of invertebrates in experimentation: Beyond the Three R's Principle

Introduction: The Three R´s Principle (Refinement, Reduction, and Replacement), postulated more than 60 years ago, is the main ethical framework currently applied for conducting animal research. This principle has never been reviewed applying a philosophical reflection during all of these years, even though a variety of animal ethics studies have presented new insights. The Three R´s Principle was designed to be used as a policy tool to ameliorate the suffering of animals and to reduce the use of animals in research, but has failed in achieving these goals. This principle is only applied when using sentience vertebrates, and fails to consider invertebrates as their capacity to sentience is still disputed. In this way, invertebrates are reified, which has been determined to be detrimental as their suffering has been consistently denied. As a consequence, new insights are necessary to improve scientific practices. Epistemology and ethics have always been viewed as opposing approaches. ´Epistemology-based Ethics' subordinate ethical concern to scientific facts and 'Ethics-based Epistemology' purports that ethical practice should guide epistemological practices. Objective: In this paper, we maintain that unifying both approaches under a broader conceptual framework may result in the view that these are not, actually, opposite approaches. We propose to progress beyond the Three R's Principle and extend it to a position equal to the level of the ethical and epistemological approaches. We also propose to use the Precautionary Principle as it is always better to be safe than sorry, and to include two more Rs. Methods: This paper is based on the analysis of different ethical frameworks used in biology and ecology that can be implemented in invertebrates experimentation. Results: The analysis revealed that different ethical approaches are frequently used in biological research, but not all of them are implemented in experimental research that involves invertebrates. We argue that the ethical considerations used in any research field can be implemented in invertebrate research. Conclusion: We propose a Five R´s Principle: the traditional Refinement, Reduction, and Replacement, used along with Respect and Responsibility (a respectful relationship with every living being regardless of its complexity and personal commitment to conscientiously apply ethics concepts).

Introducción: El Principio de las Tres R (Refinamiento, Reducción y Reemplazo), postulado hace más de 60 años, es el principal marco ético que se aplica actualmente para realizar investigaciones en animales. Este principio no ha sido revisado desde una reflexión filosófica a pesar de tantos años y de lavariedad de estudios en ética animal que han presentado nuevas ideas. Este principio solo se aplica cuando se utilizan vertebrados sintientes, y no tiene en cuenta a los invertebrados, ya que su capacidad de sentiencia aún está cuestinada. De esta manera, los invertebrados son cosificados, lo que ha sido en su detrimento ya que su sufrimiento ha sido constantemente negado. El Principio de las Tres R fue diseñado para ser utilizado como una herramienta de política para mejorar el sufrimiento de los animales y reducir el uso de animales en la investigación, pero no ha logrado alcanzar estos objetivos. Como consecuencia, se necesitan nuevas ideas para mejorar las prácticas científicas. La epistemología y la ética siempre se han visto como enfoques opuestos. La concepción ética subordinada de a los hechos científicos se llama "Ética basada en la epistemología" y, en cambio, la "Epistemología basada en la ética" pretende que la práctica ética guie las prácticas epistemológicas. Objetivo: En este trabajo, proponemos que unificar ambos enfoques bajo un marco conceptual más amplio y eliminar la percepción de que son enfoques opuestos. Proponemos avanzar más allá del Principio de las Tres R , extenderlo y colocar un mismo nivel a los enfoques éticos y epistemológicos. También proponemos utilizar el Principio de precaución, ya que siempre es mejor prevenir que curar e incluir dos R más. Métodos: El trabajo está basado en un análisis de diferentes corrientes éticas utilizadas en biología y ecología que pueden ser implementadas en la experimentación con invertebrados. Resultados: El análisis de los trabajos reveló que hay diferentes posturas éticas que se usan frecuentemente en biología, pero no todas ellas son implementadas en la experimentación con invertebrados. Bajos nuestra argumentación sostenemos que las consideraciones éticas usadas en cualquier campo de investigación puede ser implementada en la experimentación con invertebrados. Conclusión: De esta manera, proponemos un Principio de las Cinco R: Refinamiento, Reducción, Reemplazo para ser usados junto con el Respeto y la Responsabilidad (una relación respetuosa con cada ser vivo independientemente de su complejidad y un compromiso personal de aplicar conscientemente los conceptos éticos).

A contribuição do princípio da precaução para a epistemologia do Jornalismo Ambiental / The contribution of the precautionary principle to the epistemology of Environmental Journalism / La contribución del principio de precaución a la epistemología del Periodismo Ambiental

Neste artigo apresentamos os resultados preliminares de um projeto de pesquisa mais amplo sobre as epistemologias do jornalismo ambiental. O objetivo principal é verificar a origem e sustentação de aspectos epistemológicos do jornalismo dedicado ao meio ambiente. Apresentamos a proposta que impulsionou este estudo e, de forma específica, a análise realizada sobre um dos pressupostos pouco incorporados na cobertura de meio ambiente no Brasil até agora, que é a ideia da precaução. A análise é orientada por pesquisa bibliográfica com abordagem descritiva-qualitativa. Como resultado, constatamos que a literatura sobre jornalismo ambiental trata pouco da antecipação de riscos e danos, mesmo com o avanço da ciência em termos de previsões. Concluímos que a adoção do princípio da precaução se faz necessária em uma sociedade permeada por riscos fabricados pela própria humanidade.

This article presents the preliminary results from a larger study effort about the epistemology of environmental journalism. The main objective was to verify the origin and the support of the epistemological aspects of journalism dedicated to the environment. We present the proposal that drove this study and, specifically, the analysis carried out on one of the barely incorporated assumptions in the environmental coverage in Brazil until now, which is the idea of precaution. The analysis is guided by bibliographic research, with a descriptive-qualitative approach. As a result, we identified that the literature on environmental journalism deals little with anticipating risks and damages, even with the advance of science in terms of predictions. In conclusion, the incorporation of the precautionary principle is necessary for a society in which predominate the risks produced by the humanity itself.

En este artículo presentamos los resultados preliminares de un mayor esfuerzo de investigación sobre la epistemología del periodismo ambiental. El objetivo principal era verificar el origen y el apoyo de los aspectos epistemológicos del periodismo dedicado al medio ambiente. Presentamos la propuesta que impulsó este estudio y, de manera específica, el análisis realizado sobre uno de los supuestos poco incorporados en la cobertura ambiental en Brasil hasta ahora, que es la idea de precaución. El análisis se guía por la investigación bibliográfica, con un enfoque descriptivo-cualitativo. Como resultado, encontramos que la literatura sobre periodismo ambiental se ocupa poco de anticipar riesgos y daños, incluso con el avance de la ciencia en términos de predicciones. Llegamos a la conclusión de que la adopción del principio de precaución es necesaria en una sociedad impregnada de riesgos fabricados por la humanidad misma.

Bioética y justicia ambiental: el caso de presencia de plaguicidas en escolares de comunidades rurales / Bioética e justiça ambiental: o caso da presença de pesticidas em escolares de comunidades rurais / Bioethics and environmental justice: the case of the presence of pesticides in schoolchildren in rural communities

Resumen: Una serie de estudios evidencian las consecuencias en la salud de las personas expuestas a plaguicidas, ya sea por la actividad laboral como por vivir o estudiar cerca de predios agrícolas. La exposición ocupacional a una serie de insecticidas, herbicidas y fungicidas está asociada principalmente a cáncer, daño neurocognitivo y motor, polineuropatía periférica, depresión y ansiedad, malformaciones en niños al nacer, dificultades endocrinas y en el sistema reproductivo, daño renal y genotóxicos. A través de una revisión de la literatura, el objetivo del siguiente artículo consistió en dilucidar la situación de exposición a plaguicidas en comunidades escolares rurales y aplicar elementos de la bioética y justicia ambiental para proponer un cambio y acciones que permitan mejorar su calidad de vida y salud, por el derecho a vivir libres de contaminación ambiental. La justicia ambiental busca mucho más que la equidad y el tratamiento justo y de calidad similar al de otras comunidades no vulnerables, apunta a hacer que las mismas comunidades exijan la necesidad de una sociedad más igualitaria que vele por el derecho a vivir en un medio ambiente limpio.

Resumo: Uma série de estudos evidenciam as conseqüências na saúde das pessoas expostas a pesticidas, seja por atividade de trabalho como por viver ou estudar perdo de prédiso agrícolas. A exposição ocupacional a uma série de inseticidas, herbicidas e fungicidas está associada principalmente a câncer, dano neurocognitivo e motor, polineuropatia periférica, depressão e ansiedade, mal formações em crianças ao nascer, dificuldade endócrinas e no sistema reprodutivo, dano renal e genotóxicos. Através de uma revisão da literatura, o objetivo do artigo seguinte consistiu em elucidar a situação de exposição a pesticidas em comunidades escolares rurais e aplicar elementos de bioética e justiça ambiental para propor uma mudança e ações que permitam melhorar sua qualidade de vida e saúde, pelo direito a viver livre de contaminação ambiental. A justiça ambiental busca muito mais que a equidade e o tratamento justo e de qualidade similar ao de outras comunidades não vulneráveis, tenta fazer que as mesmas comunidades exijam a necessidade de uma sociedade mais igualitária que vele pelo direito a viver em um meio ambiente limpo.

Abstract: A series of studies show the health consequences of people exposed to pesticides either because of their work activity or because they live or study near agricultural land. Occupational exposure to a series of insecticides, herbicides and fungicides is mainly associated with cancer, neurocognitive and motor damage, peripheral polyneuropathy, depression and anxiety, malformations in children at birth, endocrine and reproductive system difficulties, kidney damage and genotoxic effects. Through a review of the literature, the objective of the following article was to elucidate the situation of exposure to pesticides in rural school communities, unveil the bioethical dilemmas in which they are located and the need to apply elements of environmental justice to generate a change and actions to improve their quality of life and health, for the right to live free of environmental pollution. Environmental justice seeks much more than equity and fair treatment and quality similar to that of other non-vulnerable communities, aims to make the same communities demand the need for a more egalitarian society that ensures the right to live in an environment cleansed.

Adoção de medidas de precaução diante dos riscos no uso das inovações tecnocientíficas / Adoption of precautionary measures regarding risks in the use of technoscientific innovations

Identifico medidas de precaução que devem ser adotadas para prevenir ou reduzir o risco dos efeitos danosos possivelmente ocasionados pelos usos das inovações científicas. Meu argumento se vale em especial de situações em que há incerteza a respeito dos riscos envolvidos. Sustenta que medidas eticamente adequadas precisam ser informadas pelos resultados das pesquisas científicas empreendidas (sob as estratégias metodológicas apropriadas) com o fim de identificar, tanto quanto possível, os efeitos danosos possíveis e a variedade dos mecanismos que levem à sua efetiva ocorrência, bem como as condições em que eles atualmente ocorreriam, e com qual magnitude e probabilidade, bem como descobrir como prevenir a ocorrência deles ou reduzir o seu impacto a níveis aceitáveis por meio de regulamentos apropriadamente fiscalizados. Assim, ao final, discuto as responsabilidades dos cientistas e suas instituições na condução da pesquisa necessária para informar as medidas de precaução.

I identify precautionary measures that ought to be adopted to prevent or reduce the risk of harmful effects possibly occasioned by the uses of scientific innova-tions. My argument pays special attention to situations in which there is uncertainty about the risks involved. It maintains that ethically adequate measures need to be infor-med by the results of scientific research conducted (under appropriate methodological strategies) with the aim of identifying, as far as possible, not only the potential harmful effects and the various mechanisms that may lead to their actual occurrence, but also the conditions by which they would actually occur and their magnitude and probability, as well as discovering how to prevent them or reduce their impact to acceptable levels by means of appropriately enforced regulations. Then, in the final section, I discuss the responsibilities of scientists and their institutions when conducting the research needed to inform the precautionary measures.

(In)eficácia do Princípio de Precaução no Brasil / (In) effectiveness of the Precautionary Principle in Brazil

Este artigo tem por objetivo revisar o Princípio de Precaução no ordenamento nacional ante os acordos internacionais assumidos pelo Brasil. Optamos por uma abordagem constitucional na fase introdutória, pois Princípio de Precaução, que emerge do artigo 225 da Constituição Federal, é considerado como Princípio Geral do Direito Ambiental. O artigo está dividido em três itens. No primeiro deles, como introdução, sugerimos um panorama da sua inserção no direito ambiental brasileiro a partir das convenções internacionais. O segundo item refere-se à sua incorporação pela a doutrina jurídica brasileira. No terceiro, apresentamos alguns exemplos da sua [in]eficácia no contexto nacional. As considerações finais evocam a urgência de uma postura precautória.

The purpose of this article is to review the Precautionary Principle in Brazilian law in relation to the international agreements assumed by the country. We opted for a constitutional approach in the introductory phase, since the Precautionary Principle, which emerges from Article 225 of the Brazilian Federal Constitution, is considered as a general principle of national environmental law. The article is divided into three items. In the first one, introduction, we suggest an over view of the Precautionary.

El principio depprecaución y los límites en biomedicnna / The precutionaryy principle and limits in biomedicine / O pincípio de prrecaução e os limites em biomedicina

Los actuales avances en tecnología biomédica han alcanzado resultados hasta ahora inimaginables, tanto en la terapia de enfermedades como en el perfeccionamiento de la especie humana. Es necesario plantearse si el deseo de perfección posee límites precisos, y si es necesario aplicar un principio limitador que garantice el respeto de la naturaleza humana e impida la asunción de riesgos que puedan afectar a generaciones futuras. El principio de precaución se presenta como elemento racionalizador frente a cualquier intento de un progreso ciego o despótico. Pero dicho principio puede derivar hacia concepciones confusas cuando se desliga de su componente constitutivo: la virtud de la prudencia.

Current advances in biomedical technology have achieved previously unimaginable results in terms of both disease therapy and improvement of the human species. Accordingly, it is crucial to consider whether the desire for perfection has specific limits, and if it is necessary apply a limiting principle to ensure respect for human nature and to prevent risk-taking that might affect future generations. The precautionary principle is presented as a rationalizing element against any attempt by blind or despotic progress. However, this principle can lead to confusing concepts when it becomes separated from its basic component: the virtue of prudence.

Os atuais avanços em tecnologia biomédica têm atingido resultados até agora não imagináveis, tanto na terapia de doenças quanto no aperfeiçoamento da espécie humana. Nesse contexto, é necessário questionar se o desejo de aperfeiçoamento possui limites precisos e se é necessário aplicar um princípio limitador que garanta o respeito da natureza humana e impeça a assunção de riscos que possam afetar gerações futuras. O princípio de precaução apresenta-se como elemento racionalizador ante qualquer tentativa de um progresso cego ou despótico. Porém, esse princípio pode derivar a concepções confusas quando se desliga de seu componente constitutivo: a virtude da prudência.

Current epidemiological situation of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus clusters and implications for public health response in South Korea

Since May 20, 2015, when the first case of Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) in South Korea was confirmed, the cluster case in South Korea has grown to become the largest observed case following Saudi Arabia within the span of one month. Akin to what was observed in the Middle East, confirmed cases were infected through nosocomial transmission where the cluster is largely limited to patients, healthcare workers, and visitors to patients in healthcare facilities with confirmed cases. A major difference from the outbreaks in the Arabian Peninsula has been the large number of tertiary transmission cases in South Korea, which had reached forty cases by June 12. This observation may suggest that despite the lack of genetic mutation of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in South Korea, the virus may be behaving differently from that of the Middle East. The higher infectiousness of 'super-spreaders' in South Korea also suggests that this assertion should be under further investigation. Suggestions of inadequate triage in emergency rooms, particularly at Samsung Medical Center which accounts for the most nosocomial infection with 60 cases, have been made by several organizations as the basis for this rapid spread. This, however, does not account for the fact that triage was impossible to implement, since the presence of MERS-CoV in South Korea was unknown during the index patient's stay at the healthcare facilities. This paper aims to identify the key factors in the amplified spread of MERS-CoV in South Korea. The first is the initial failure to confirm diagnosis promptly and to isolate the index case after confirmation of MERS in hospital and the lack of detail in tracking potential exposures in the community of the index case before isolation. The second is the early inadequate measures the Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention took in categorizing close contacts. Due to inconsistencies in defining what constitutes close contact, a number of cases were neglected from quarantine and were not subjected to investigation. Finally, confirmed or potential MERS patients were admitted for treatment and observation at medical facilities without adequate disease control measures or rooms, such as ventilated single rooms or airborne precaution rooms. Due to the rigid position that MERS-CoV cannot be transmitted via airborne means, infection control measures has so far neglected evidence that smaller droplets (aerosol) containing the virus can act similar to airborne agents, which may account for the widespread and rapid transmission in a emergency room and a patient's room in hospital. Although the South Korean government expects newly confirmed cases to abate in the coming few weeks, without stringent implementation of clearly defined guidelines to control further transmissions, the cessation of the current trend may continue for an extended period. Additionally, due to the high infection rate of super-spreaders in South Korea, efforts to screen for potential super-spreaders and a thorough investigation of those confirmed to be super-spreaders should be done to quickly identify source of infection, to potentially lower the number of secondary, tertiary transmissions and prevent possible quaternary transmissions.

El principio de precaución en el plan nacional e salud pública de Colombia: ¿ausencia o gran mal? / The precautioaryy principle in the Colombian national public ealth plan: abssence or impidement?

Este artículo resume el informe final de la investigación que lleva como título: "Apropiación del Principio de Precaución en las políticas públicas sanitarias: caso Plan Nacional de Salud Pública de Colombia", el cual está centrado en el estudio del Principio de Precaución y su incidencia en las políticas públicas sanitarias de la legislación colombiana. La investigación se centró en la revisión tanto de la historia de tal principio en la legislación internacional, fundamentalmente en las convenciones sobre medio ambiente, como en la exploración conceptual que se ha hecho del principio y su relación con la salud pública, especialmente en lo que refiere al Plan Nacional de Salud Pública, determinando la apropiación o no del principio en tal política. Aparece en escena y como correlato investigativo una apertura conceptual del concepto de salud y del concepto de riesgo, los cuales se involucran en la discusión para poder determinar la efectiva incidencia de la precaución en la legislación colombiana. La pretensión de este artículo es, entonces, mostrar de manera sintética cada uno de los puntos a los que hace referencia la investigación misma, esto es, los orígenes y el contexto del Principio de Precaución, las aproximaciones conceptuales que se han hecho acerca de él, su relación específica con la legislación colombiana, los vínculos que éste tiene dentro del complejo concepto de la salud pública y su correspondencia particular en el Plan Nacional de Salud Pública en Colombia. El análisis realizado permitió identificar algunos criterios útiles para determinar el grado de apropiación del Principio de Precaución de una política pública sanitaria. En este sentido se encontró que en el país sí existe legislación que propende por la inclusión del Principio de Precaución en las normas, pero el actual Plan Nacional de Salud Pública no lo contempla ni explícita ni implícitamente.

This article summarizes the final report of the research entitled "Apropiación del Principio de Precaución en las políticas públicas sanitarias: caso Plan Nacional de Salud Pública de Colombia" which is focused on the study of the Precautionary Principle and its incidence on public health policy of the Colombian legislation. The research covered the historical review of such principle in international legislation, especially on the environmental conventions. It also studied the conceptual exploration that has been carried out on the principle and its relationship with public health, particularly in regards to the Colombian National Public Health Plan, determining the principle’s acquisition or not in such plan. As parallel research points, the concepts of health and risk are treated, which come into play in this discussion in order to determine the effective incidence of precaution in the Colombian legislation. What this article intends is to show, in a synthetic way, each of the points to which the research itself makes reference, the origins and context of the Precautionary Principle; the conceptual approaches that have been used for its study, its specific relationship with Colombian legislation; the links that this principle has inside the complex concept of Public Health; and, its particular correspondence in the National Public Health Plan in Colombia. The analysis identified some useful criteria for determining the acquisition level of the Precautionary Principle of a public health policy in Colombia. In this sense, the results showed that the country possesses legislation that favors the inclusion of the Precautionary Principle within the norms, but the current National Public Health Plan does not contemplate it, neither implicitly nor explicitly.

Los efectos jurídicos del fallo del Excelentísimo Tribunal Constitucional sobre la llamada “píldora del día después” / The legal effects of the resolution of Constitutional Court about the mornig-after pill

El tema de la llamada “píldora del día después” o “píldora del día siguiente” se inició en Chile con una serie de acciones ante los tribunales ordinarios con resultados muy contradictorios, tras lo cual el fallo del Tribunal Constitucional de abril de 2008 resultó una importante definición acerca del estatuto del embrión humano, la protección de la vida y el principio precautorio aplicado a ella, aunque no pudo extenderse a todas las materias relacionadas con la PDD por ser la competencia del Tribunal muy acotada. Sin embargo, los efectos de ese fallo se proyectan de modo muy interesante hacia la interpretación constitucional futura y constituyen una clave en la lectura de los derechos fundamentales desde nuestra Constitución de 1980.

The Constitutional Court ruling on the so-called “the day after pill” or “morning-after pill” has come to settle a long controversy that began in the ordinary tribunals and courts of justice, rather than determinate the drug have antianidatorio effect or not, this means, if prevented or not the zygote can continue development in the womb of the mother. This situation has meant the decision to provide protection to the human embryo at the possibility of damage, which imports a precautionary statement around the right to life and it needed the protection of the human being from the moment of the conception.

Precautionary principles should be established in clinical confidentiality / 基础医学与临床

In clinical practice, confidentiality is always the ethical criterion and conduct for clinicians. But the principle is not absolute, once someone is in great danger because he or she does not know some medical information, doctors should take actions to avert or minimize the harm. In other words, doctors should take anticipatory-measures to protect him or her against uncertain but plausible risks for patients. In such context, clinical confidentiality is facing the challenge of the precautionary principle.

O princípio da precaução: dever do Estado ou protecionismo disfarçado? / x

A inclusão da saúde pública na ordem do dia dos movimentos sociais, em especial a resistência ao processo de globalização, coincide com um impasse na evolução da liberalização do comércio mundial, diante da inexistência de consenso entre os Estados sobre a questão agrícola. O princípio da precaução surge nessa complexa equação como obstáculo ao livre-comércio ou pode ser interpretado como forma de mascarar o protecionismo que caracteriza os Estados desenvolvidos.

The inclusion of public health as an agenda item within grass-roots movements, especially the anti-globalization movement, coincides with an impasse in continued liberalization of world trade, due to a lack of consensus between nations with regard to agricultural issues. The precautionary principle emerges within this complex equation as an obstacle to free trade, or as an attempt to mask the protectionist tendencies of developing nations.

Ethical Issues in Geneticaly Modified Organisms / 中国医学伦理学

Genetically modified organisms, as a high-tech product, break through the limitation of different organisms and create new organisms through gene implanting from other kinds of organisms. They not only bring great benefits to human beings but also bring some ethical issues including the effect on environment,the effect on human health,and the respect to hatural law.Moreover,this article argues some ethical issues during the process of commercialization and sale including how to maintain the consumers' benefits,the protection on researchers through potent right,the precautionary principle and label issues.