Science and environmental policy establishment: the case of the Forest Act in the State of São Paulo, Brazil / Ciência e implementação de política ambiental: o caso do Código Florestal no Estado de São Paulo, Brasil

Abstract Natural ecosystems are under severe threat worldwide and environmental policies are essential to minimize present and future impacts on biodiversity, ecosystem services and climate change. The New Forest Act in Brazil is the main policy to protect native vegetation in private lands, which comprise 54% of the remaining Brazilian native vegetation. However, conflicts between environmental and agricultural concerns in its implementation demand for balanced solutions based on scientific evidence. To face the challenge of applying science in environmental policy establishment, we developed a scientific project funded by the São Paulo State Research Foundation (FAPESP) to support the implementation of the New Forest Act in São Paulo State, as part of the Biota/FAPESP Program. The project was conducted differently from a regular research project: the broad objective was to provide scientific support to the State's implementation of the New Forest Act, based on a participatory interaction among stakeholders to build specific objectives, methods, and discussion of results, within an interdisciplinary and intersectoral research team. Here, we present the lessons learned during and after the four years of the research project development to evaluate how scientific knowledge can be produced and adopted in the implementation of a specific environmental policy. We present the main outcomes and the challenges faced in trying to include scientific data in the decision-making process. We also present current and future challenges in the New Forest Act implementation that could be solved with scientific evidence. The lessons learned showed that even designing the project in order to meet the needs to support the implementation of the environmental policy, avoiding difficulties normally pointed out by similar projects, there was a great difficulty for scientific contributions to be adopted in the decision-making process. Most of the scientific information and advice, even after discussion and common understanding among a diverse stakeholder group, were ignored or over-ruled in the final decision-making phases.

Resumo Os ecossistemas naturais estão sob grave ameaça em todo o mundo e as políticas ambientais são essenciais para minimizar os impactos presentes e futuros na biodiversidade, nos serviços ecossistêmicos e nas mudanças climáticas. O Novo Código Florestal no Brasil é a principal política de proteção da vegetação nativa em terras privadas, que compreende 54% da vegetação nativa remanescente brasileira. No entanto, os conflitos entre as preocupações ambientais e agrícolas na sua implementação exigem soluções equilibradas e baseadas em evidências científicas. Para enfrentar o desafio de aplicar a ciência no estabelecimento de políticas ambientais, desenvolvemos um projeto científico financiado pela Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) para apoiar a implementação do Novo Código Florestal no Estado de São Paulo, como parte do Programa Biota/FAPESP. O projeto foi conduzido de forma diferente de um projeto de pesquisa regular: o objetivo amplo foi fornecer suporte científico para a implementação do Novo Código Florestal pelo Estado, a partir de uma interação participativa entre as partes interessadas para construir objetivos específicos, métodos e discussão de resultados, dentro de uma equipe de pesquisa interdisciplinar e intersetorial. Aqui, apresentamos as lições aprendidas durante e após os quatro anos de desenvolvimento do projeto de pesquisa para avaliar como o conhecimento científico pode ser produzido e adotado na implementação de uma política ambiental específica. Apresentamos os principais resultados e os desafios enfrentados na tentativa de incluir dados científicos no processo decisório. Apresentamos também desafios atuais e futuros na implementação do Novo Código Florestal que podem ser resolvidos com evidências científicas. As lições aprendidas mostraram que mesmo concebendo o projeto de forma a atender as necessidades de apoio à implementação da política ambiental, evitando dificuldades normalmente apontadas por projetos semelhantes, houve uma grande dificuldade para que contribuições científicas fossem adotadas no processo decisório. A maioria das informações e conselhos científicos, mesmo após discussão e entendimento comum entre um grupo diversificado de partes interessadas, foi ignorada nas fases finais de tomada de decisão.

Reinfección, inmunidad y prevención de la transmisión en la COVID-19 / Reinfection, immunity and prevention of transmission of COVID-19

Introducción: La duración de la inmunidad natural generada por la COVID-19 está por definir, lo que determina la probable reinfección. Objetivo: Destacar la necesidad de mantener las medidas de prevención a propósito de un caso de reinfección en un trabajador sanitario. Presentación de caso: Paciente femenina de 48 años de edad con antecedentes de salud que, en junio, 2020 y marzo, 2021 se le diagnóstica la COVID-19, en ambos casos con el comportamiento de enfermedad sintomática leve. Después de 24 horas de comenzar con cefalea, mareos y tos seca se confirma el diagnóstico de infección por SARS CoV-2 con PCR positivo y umbral de ciclo (CT) en 24.84. Pasados 9 meses y 9 días de la infección original, y dos días posteriores a recibir la vacuna BNT162b2 (Pfizer-BioNTech), comienza con malestar general, tos seca, secreción nasal y dolor de garganta, con PCR positivo y CT de 17.61. Conclusiones: La posibilidad de la reinfección por la COVID-19 orienta la necesidad de fortalecer las acciones de prevención de la transmisión en instituciones de salud en tanto las evidencias científicas nos provean de recursos más eficaces para su control(AU)

Introduction: The duration of natural immunity generated by COVID-19 is yet to be defined, which determines the probable reinfection. Objective: To analyze issues related to natural infection and the need to maintain prevention practices regarding a case of reinfection in a health care worker. Case presentation: Forty-eight-year-old female patient without comorbidities who was diagnosed with COVID-19 in June 2020 and March 2021, in both cases as a mild symptomatic disease. Twenty-four hours after the onset with headache, dizziness, and dry cough, the diagnosis of SARS CoV-2 infection was confirmed by positive PCR and cycle threshold (CT) at 24.84. Nine months and nine days after original infection, and two days after receiving the BNT162b2 vaccine (Pfizer-BioNTech), the patient began with general malaise, dry cough, runny nose, and sore throat, with a positive PCR and CT of 17.61. Conclusions: The possibility of reinfection by COVID-19 points to the need to strengthen transmission prevention practices in healthcare facilities as long as scientific evidence provides us with more effective resources for its control(AU)

Evidencia científica sobre posconflicto en el contexto iberoamericano / Scientific evidence about the post-conflict in the Ibero-American context

Resumen Objetivo analizar la evidencia científica sobre posconflicto en Iberoamérica. Revisión documental de publicaciones científicas entre 2013 y 2018. Descriptores: "conflicto", "posconflicto", "construcción de paz", "desmovilización", "reintegración", "reconciliación", "excombatientes", "democracia", "deliberación", "América Latina" y "Latinoamérica" y sus correspondientes en inglés. Los artículos fueron analizados a partir del título, resumen, año de publicación, idioma, país y fuente de publicación. Las categorías: "posconflicto", "democracia", "cultura", "educación", "estado", "territorio", "economía" y "salud". Se analizaron 66 artículos. Conclusión, la evidencia científica muestra que el posconflicto es la primera fase de consolidación de paz, los países y actores involucrados deben generar estrategias viables para su cimentación.

Abstract The objective is to analyze the scientific evidence about the post-conflict in Ibero-America; document review of scientific publications between 2013 and 2018. Descriptors "conflict," "post-conflict," "peacebuilding," "demobilization," "reintegration," "reconciliation," "ex-combatants," "democracy," "deliberation," "Latin America," and their corresponding in English. The articles were analyzed based on the title, abstract, year of publication, language, country, and source of publication. The categories "post-conflict," "democracy," "culture," "education," "state," "territory," "economy," and "health." Sixty-six articles were analyzed. As a conclusion, scientific evidence shows that post-conflict is the first phase of peacebuilding, the countries and actors involved must generate viable strategies for its foundation.

Contribuições técnicas e socioculturais da prevenção quaternária para a atenção primária à saúde: caminhos e desafios / Technical and socio-cultural contributions of quaternary prevention for primary health care: paths and challenges / Contribuciones técnicas y socioculturales de prevención cuaternaria para la atención primaria de salud: caminos y desafíos

Introdução: No contexto do Sistema Único de Saúde, o conceito da prevenção quaternária adentra timidamente os níveis de atenção à saúde, no entanto, sofre expansão significativa no âmbito da atenção primária à saúde. Objetivo: Identificar por meio da sistematização de evidências científicas, as contribuições técnicas e socioculturais da prevenção quaternária no âmbito da atenção primária à saúde no Brasil. Métodos: Trata-se de uma revisão integrativa de estudos presentes nas bases de dados científicas da Scientific Electronic Library Online, Biblioteca Virtual em Saúde, biblioteca virtual da Comissão de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal do Nível Superior e MEDLINE via PubMed com a utilização dos descritores "prevenção quaternária" e "atenção primária à saúde", em inglês e português. Resultados: O corpus de análise foi composto por 22 artigos, sendo que a produção científica sobre o tema se deu de forma mais intensa a partir do ano de 2015 e, em sua maioria, possuíam como abordagem metodológica ensaios teóricos. Dentre as contribuições técnicas destacaram-se a introdução do ensino da prevenção quaternária de modo continuado aos graduandos e profissionais; a construção de protocolos e documentos de amparo profissional; a utilização de modelos explicativos dinâmicos na socialização do quadro clínico; a conduta profissional com os usuários e as contribuições socioculturais envolvendo mudanças na percepção profissional e comunitária sobre o fenômeno saúde-doença, assim como o incentivo a práticas de desmedicalização sociocultural em relação à dor, incapacidade, desconforto, envelhecimento, nascimento e morte. Conclusão: Apesar do reconhecimento das potencialidades da prevenção quaternária, faz-se necessário fortalecer estratégias que possibilitem o desenvolvimento de políticas públicas para fomentar e gerenciar alianças estratégicas com tomadores de decisão, profissionais de saúde e cidadãos, para fomentar a redução de diagnósticos e tratamentos excessivos, contribuindo com a qualidade do cuidado.

Introduction: In the context of the Unified Health System, the concept of quaternary prevention shyly enters the levels of health care, however, undergoes significant expansion in the scope of primary health care. Objective: To identify, through the systematization of scientific evidence, the technical and socio-cultural contributions of quaternary prevention within the scope of primary health care in Brazil. Methods: This is an integrative review of studies present in the scientific databases of the Scientific Electronic Library Online, Regional Portal of the Virtual Health Library of the Latin American and Caribbean Center on Health Sciences Information of the Pan American Health Organization, virtual library of the Higher Education Personnel Improvement Commission, and MEDLINE through PubMed using the descriptors "quaternary prevention" and "primary health care", in English and Portuguese. Results: The corpus of analysis consisted of 22 articles, and the scientific production on the topic took place more intensively from the year 2015 and, for the most part, had theoretical essays as methodological approach. Among the technical contributions, we highlight the introduction of teaching on quaternary prevention in a continuous way to undergraduates and professionals; the construction of protocols and documents of professional support; the use of dynamic explanatory models in the socialization of the clinical picture and professional conduct with users and socio-cultural contributions involve changes in the professional and community perception about the phenomenon of illness and health conception, as well as the incentive to practices of socio-cultural demedicalization in relation to pain, disability, discomfort, aging, birth, and death. Conclusion: Despite the recognition of the potential of quaternary prevention, it is necessary to strengthen strategies that enable the development of public policies to foster and manage strategic alliances with decision makers, health professionals and citizens, to promote the reduction of excessive diagnoses and treatments, contributing to the quality of care.

Introducción: En el contexto del Sistema Único de Salud, el concepto de prevención cuaternaria entra tímidamente en los niveles de atención de salud, sin embargo, experimenta una expansión significativa en el alcance de la Atención Primaria de Salud. Objetivo: Identificar, a través de la sistematización de evidencia científica, las contribuciones técnicas y socioculturales de la prevención cuaternaria en el ámbito de la Atención Primaria de Salud en Brasil. Métodos: Esta es una revisión integradora de estudios presentes en las bases de datos científicas de la Biblioteca Electrónica Científica en línea, Portal Regional de la Biblioteca Virtual en Salud del Centro Latinoamericano y del Caribe de Información en Ciencias de la Salud de la Organización Panamericana de la Salud, biblioteca virtual de la Comisión de Mejoramiento del Personal de Educación Superior y MEDLINE a través de PubMed utilizando los descriptores de prevención cuaternaria y atención primaria de salud, en inglés y portugués. Resultados: El corpus de análisis estuvo conformado por 22 artículos, siendo la producción científica sobre el tema más intensiva desde 2015 y, en su mayor parte, tuvo ensayos teóricos como abordaje metodológico. Entre los aportes técnicos, destacamos la implantación de la docencia en prevención cuaternaria de forma continua a estudiantes de pregrado y profesionales; construcción de protocolos y documentos de apoyo profesional, uso de modelos explicativos dinámicos en la socialización del cuadro clínico y conducta profesional con los usuarios y los aportes socioculturales implican cambios en la percepción profesional y comunitaria sobre el fenómeno de la enfermedad y la concepción de la salud, así como el incentivo a prácticas de desmedicalización sociocultural en relación al dolor, discapacidad, malestar, envejecimiento, nacimiento y muerte. Conclusión: A pesar del reconocimiento del potencial de la prevención cuaternaria, es necesario fortalecer estrategias que permitan el desarrollo de políticas públicas para fomentar y gestionar alianzas estratégicas con los tomadores de decisiones, profesionales de la salud y ciudadanos, para promover la reducción de diagnósticos y tratamientos excesivos, contribuyendo a la calidad de la atención.

O uso de metoclopramida em mulheres em trabalho de parto: uma revisão sistemática com metanálise / The use of metoclopramide in women in labor: a systematic review with meta-analysis

Revisão sistemática com metanálise que buscou evidências científicas sobre o efeito do cloridrato de metoclopramida na evolução do trabalho de parto, a partir de ensaio clínico controlado randomizado e recomendações da Cochrane Collaboration. A busca atemporal e sem restrições de idioma, estruturada na estratégia PICOS-T, foi realizada em bases de dados Scopus, PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane, CINAHL e Scielo, literatura cinzenta e referências cruzadas, com estratégias e descritores específicos. As ferramentas Rayyan e EndNote Basic foram adotadas para gerenciar as referências. O estudo foi conduzido por dois avaliadores independentes e a concordância entre eles foi medida pelo Índice Kappa. Foram identificados 2.884 artigos, mas apenas 04 eram elegíveis e a qualidade metodológica destes (risco de viés e sigilo de alocação) foi avaliada com base no Cochrane Collaboration Risk of Bias Tool. O Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development and Evaluation foi utilizado para avaliar qualidade das evidências e força das recomendações. O relato desta pesquisa foi baseado no Preferred Report Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyzes. Não houve conflitos de interesse e qualquer tipo de financiamento. Os estudos incluídos datam de 1982 a 1992, tem 734 parturientes, "Baixo Risco de Viés" (50%) ou "Risco de Viés Incerto" (50%) e "Sigilo de Alocação Adequado" (75%). Para Ahmed et al. (1982) a metoclopramida não é eficaz para iniciar a dilatação do colo uterino no trabalho de parto espontâneo. Para Vella et al. (1985) a metoclopramida não interfere no tempo de trabalho de parto. Para Rosemblatt et al. (1991) a metoclopramida pode atuar para coordenar as contrações do útero e melhorar a força expulsiva, reduzir o tempo e facilitar a passagem do feto. Para Rossemblatt et al. (1992) doses repetidas de metoclopramida provocam redução gradativa na duração de trabalho de parto, parto e dequitação. A metanálise com 02 estudos (92 parturientes) encontrou Mean Difference= 0.8116 e RR= 0.811 (IC 95%). O tempo médio de dilatação (horas) após uso de metoclopramida versus placebo foi 4.43 versus 2.21 para Ahmed et al., com RR= -2.22. Para Rosemlatt et al., este tempo foi 4.56 versus 8.74, com RR= 4.18. O p-valor= 0.7995 revelou que não tem diferença rejeitar ou não a hipótese nula referente ao desfecho clínico pesquisado (dilatação do colo uterino). O I2= 91,56% revelou alta heterogeneidade entre os estudos e limitada aplicabilidade de seus resultados. O Teste Q de Cochran= 11.84 mostrou que há diferença de efetividade entre os resultados, rejeitando a hipótese nula citada. O "Forest Plot" mostrou que as intensidades dos resultados individuais de cada estudo diferem entre si, o que significa ausência de efeito em relação ao desfecho clínico. Este estudo apresenta nível de evidência moderado e forte recomendação dos resultados. Não há comprovação científica de que a metoclopramida favorece a dilatação do colo uterino no trabalho de parto, portanto seu uso não é recomendado. As limitações deste estudo envolveram escassos estudos elegíveis e importantes diferenças nos resultados e medições dos estudos da amostra. Novas pesquisas experimentais devem ser realizadas. As evidências deste estudo são importantes para subsidiar a prática baseada em evidência na atenção ao parto e nascimento e melhorar os desfechos materno e neonatal

A systematic review with meta-analysis that sought scientific evidence on the effect of metoclopramide hydrochloride on the evolution of labor, from a randomized controlled clinical trial and recommendations from the Cochrane Collaboration. The timeless search and without language restrictions, based on the PICOS-T strategy, was performed in databases Scopus, PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane, CINAHL and Scielo, gray literature and cross-references, with specific strategies and descriptors. The Rayyan and EndNote Basic tools were adopted to manage the references. The study was conducted by two independent evaluators and the agreement between them was measured by the Kappa. 2.884 articles were identified, but only 04 were eligible and their methodological quality (risk of bias and allocation secrecy) was evaluated based on the Cochrane Collaboration Risk of Bias Tool. The Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development and Evaluation was used to evaluate the quality of the evidence and the strength of the recommendations. The report of this research was based on the Preferred Report Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyzes. There were no conflicts of interest and any kind of financing. The included studies date from 1982 to 1992, have 734 parturients, "Low Risk of Bias" (50%) or "Uncertain Bias Risk" (50%) and "Adequate Allocation Secrecy" (75%). For Ahmed et al. (1982) metoclopramide is not effective in initiating cervical dilatation in spontaneous labor. For Vella et al. (1985) metoclopramide does not interfere with labor time. For Rosemblatt et al. (1991) metoclopramide can act to coordinate the contractions of the uterus and improve the expulsive force, reduce the time and facilitate the passage of the fetus. For Rossemblatt et al. (1992) repeated doses of metoclopramide cause a gradual reduction in the duration of labor, childbirth and placental clearence. The meta-analysis with 02 studies (92 parturients) found mean difference = 0.8116 and RR = 0811 (CI 95%). The mean time of dilation (hours) after use of metoclopramide versus placebo was 4.43 versus 2.21 for Ahmed et al., with RR =-2.22. For Rosemlatt et al., this time was 4.56 versus 8.74, with RR = 4.18. The P-value = 0.7995 revealed that it has no difference to reject or not the null hypothesis referring to the clinical outcome investigated (uterine cervix dilatation). The I2 = 91.56% showed high heterogeneity between studies and limited applicability of its results. The Cochran Q Test = 11.84 showed that there is a difference in effectiveness between the results, rejecting the null hypothesis cited. The "Forest Plot" showed that the intensities of the individual results of each study differ, which means no effect in relation to the clinical outcome. This study presents a moderate level of evidence and a strong recommendation of the results. There is no scientific evidence that metoclopramide favors uterine cervix dilation in labor, therefore its use is not recommended. The limitations of this study involved scarce eligible studies and important differences in the results and measurements of the sample studies. New experimental studies should be carried out. The evidences of this study are important to subsidize the evidence-based practice in childbirth care and birth and to improve maternal and neonatal outcomes

Manejo de fluidos intravenosos: del uso indiscriminado y empírico al manejo racional y científico / Intravenous fluid management from indiscriminate and empirical use to rational and scientific manageme / Manejo de fluídos intravenosos do uso indiscriminado e empírico à administração racional e científica

Resumen: El fundamento básico de la terapia hídrica es aumentar el gasto cardiaco, mejorar la perfusión y la oxigenación tisular para garantizar el adecuado funcionamiento de órganos. La cantidad de líquidos administrada es esencial para el pronóstico; existe controversia sobre cuál solución es la mejor. La prescripción de fluidos intravenosos varía considerablemente a nivel mundial, la elección parece basarse en costumbres locales, comercialización, costos y disponibilidad de las soluciones; los registros globales de atención médica demuestran el uso indiscriminado de este recurso terapéutico de forma empírica, principalmente en la población adulta. Hoy se conocen, por múltiples estudios, los efectos adversos atribuidos a la sobrecarga hídrica, a las soluciones ricas en cloro y al impacto que tienen en los costos hospitalarios, la morbilidad y la mortalidad global. En este artículo se analizan todos estos factores y las nuevas directrices de manejo basadas en la evidencia científica.

Abstract: The basic basis of fluid therapy is to increase cardiac output, improve perfusion and tissue oxygenation to ensure proper organ function, the amount of fluids administered is critical to the prognosis and there is controversy over which fluid is better over the others. Globally, there is great variation in the prescription of intravenous fluids, the choice seems to be based on local customs, marketing, costs and availability of the solutions; The global records of health care demonstrate the indiscriminate use of this therapeutic resource in an empirical way mainly in the adult population, the adverse effects attributed to water overload, chloride rich solutions and the impact this leads to In hospital costs, morbidity and overall mortality. This article analyzes all these factors and the new management guidelines based on the scientific evidence.

Resumo: O fundamento básico da terapia hídrica é aumentar o débito cardíaco, melhorar a perfusão e a oxigenação tecidual para garantir o funcionamento adequado dos órgãos, a quantidade de fluído administrado é fundamental para o prognóstico e há controvérsia sobre qual solução é melhor do que as demais. A nível mundial, existe uma grande variação na prescrição de fluídos intravenosos, a escolha parece estar baseada nos costumes locais, comercialização, custos e disponibilidade de soluções; os registros globais de atenção médica demonstram o uso indiscriminado deste recurso terapêutico de forma empírica, principalmente na população adulta, hoje sabemos por meio de estudos múltiplos os efeitos adversos atribuídos à sobrecarga hídrica, as soluções ricas em cloro e ao impacto que isso leva nos custos hospitalares, morbidade e mortalidade global. Este artigo analisa todos esses fatores e as novas diretrizes de manejo baseadas em evidências científicas.

Parto Natural. ¿Qué nos dice la evidencia? / Natural birth. What does the evidence tell us?

Introducción: Es deseable que el proceso del parto concluya con una madre y un recién nacido sano, y sea un momento especial e íntimo. El Parto Natural, ha sido propuesto como una opción para mejorar la satisfacción de las mujeres con el proceso del parto. Sin embargo, no existen definiciones serias respecto a qué es el Parto Natural, introduciendo dificultades en la atención de mujeres que solicitan un Parto Natural. Métodos: El objetivo de este artículo es revisar la mejor evidencia disponible para entender cómo debe definirse un Parto Natural y analizar si se asocia a riesgos mayores que los de la atención médica habitual del parto. Resultados: Hemos comprobado que no existen definiciones científicas consensuadas para precisar qué es el Parto Natural, dejando espacio para discusión sobre su verdadero significado. No existen estudios de diseño aleatorizado y controlado que comparen el resultado materno/perinatal del parto natural comparado con la atención habitual del parto. Las intervenciones médicas, usadas en la atención médica del parto, y que podrían ser evitadas en el Parto Natural, producen algunos cambios favorables y otros deletéreos respecto de la salud materna y perinatal. Conclusiones: La decisión de optar por el Parto Natural debe ser discutida con las mujeres que lo solicitan, precisando con ella y su pareja cuál es su concepto de parto natural o qué es lo que desean incluir o evitar, los riesgos y beneficios asociados a cada una de las intervenciones deben ser expuestos por el equipo médico, para adoptar un plan de manejo individualizado.(AU)

Introduction: It is desirable that the birth process concludes with a healthy mother and newborn, while at the same time being a special and intimate moment. Natural childbirth has been proposed as a recent option to improve the satisfaction of women with the process of childbirth. However, there are no serious definitions regarding what is or should be a Natural Childbirth, introducing difficulties in the care of women who request a Natural Birth. Methods: The objective of this article is to review the best available evidence to understand how Natural Childbirth should be defined and to analyze if it is associated with greater maternal or perinatal risks than those of usual medical care at birth. Results: We verified that there are no agreed scientific definition to specify what Natural Childbirth is, leaving space for discussion about its true meaning. There are no randomized, controlled trials comparing the maternal/ perinatal outcome of natural childbirth compared to usual medical care during labor/delivery. Medical interventions used in childbirth are that could be avoided in natural birth produce some favorable changes and some deleterious changes in maternal and perinatal health. Conclusions: The decision to choose Natural Childbirth must be discussed with the women who request it, specifying with her and her partner´s concept of natural childbirth or what they wish to include or avoid, the risks and benefits associated with these interventions must be exposed by the medical team, to adopt an individualized management plan.(AU)

How sample size influences research outcomes

Sample size calculation is part of the early stages of conducting an epidemiological, clinical or lab study. In preparing a scientific paper, there are ethical and methodological indications for its use. Two investigations conducted with the same methodology and achieving equivalent results, but different only in terms of sample size, may point the researcher in different directions when it comes to making clinical decisions. Therefore, ideally, samples should not be small and, contrary to what one might think, should not be excessive. The aim of this paper is to discuss in clinical language the main implications of the sample size when interpreting a study.

O cálculo amostral faz parte dos estágios iniciais de realização de um estudo epidemiológico, clínico ou laboratorial. Há indicações éticas e metodológicas para o seu emprego na elaboração de um trabalho científico. Duas pesquisas, realizadas com a mesma metodologia obtendo resultados equivalentes, e que diferem apenas no tamanho da amostra, podem apontar para diferentes direções no processo de tomada de decisão clínica. Portanto, as amostras estudadas idealmente não devem ser pequenas e, ao contrário do que pode-se pensar, não devem ser excessivas. O objetivo desse artigo é discutir, numa linguagem clínica, as principais implicações do tamanho das amostras na interpretação de um estudo.

Guía de práctica clínica para el paciente pediátrico en postoperatorio de cirugía cardiaca / Clinical practice guideline for pediatric patients in the postoperative period of cardiac surgery

Los pacientes pediátricos en postoperatorio de cirugía cardiovascular son críticos y hemodinámicamente inestables (Rita de Cássia Mello Guimarães, 2010), y a su ingreso a la Unidad de Cuidados Intensivos (UCI), necesitan profesionales de Enfermería que brinden un cuidado de enfermería acertado y oportuno. En este estudio se propone la elaboración de una guía de práctica clínica basada en la evidencia científica, que provea información confiable sobre las intervenciones de enfermería fundamentales para el cuidado de estos pacientes en etapa postoperatoria inmediata. Para la elaboración de esta guía se identificaron 24 temas de interés y se formularon 45 preguntas PICO. Se realizó una búsqueda de literatura en 22 bases de datos con palabras claves en inglés y español. Se encontraron 150 documentos relacionados con el tema, se aplicó lectura crítica a 49 estudios relacionados con el cuidado directo, y se logró responder a 24 preguntas PICO con 58 recomendaciones. Gran parte de la evidencia corresponde al nivel 2+ según la clasificación SIGN, y la mayoría de las recomendaciones son de Grado C. Cabe resaltar que se encontraron 9 revisiones sistemáticas que permitieron formular recomendaciones Grado A y B, así como 3 estudios cualitativos publicados por enfermeras colombianas, brasileras y estadounidenses.

Pediatric patients in postoperative of cardiovascular surgery are critical and hemodynamically unstable (Rita de Cassia Mello Guimarães, 2010), and during admission to the intensive care unit (ICU), they need nurses who provide correct and suitable care. This study proposes the development of a clinical practice guideline based on scientific evidence, to provide reliable information on basic nursing interventions for the care of these patients on immediate postoperatory stage. For this guide 24 topics of interest were identified and 45 PICO questions were formulated. A literature search in 22 databases with key words in English and Spanish was performed. 150 documents related to the topic were found, critical lecture was applied to 49 direct care studies, and it was managed to answer 24 questions PICO with 58 recommendations. Much of the evidence corresponds to level 2 + according to the SIGN classification, and most of the recommendations are Grade C. It is important to point that nine systematic reviews recommendations Grade A and B were found, as well as 3 qualitative studies published by Colombian, Brazilian and American nurses.

Transferencia tecnológica en el área de adicciones: El programa de intervención breve para adolescentes, retos y perspectivas / Technology transfer in the field of addictions: The brief intervention program for adolescents challenges and prospects

Los conocimientos que proporciona la psicología deben dar respuesta a diferentes problemáticas, lo que sólo puede lograrse cuando los hallazgos obtenidos por evidencia científica son asequibles a otros grupos científicos, y núcleos sociales, a fin de que éstos logren apropiarse y usarlos para solucionar problemas, mejorar su calidad de vida o prevenir una situación potencial de riesgo. Sin embargo, con frecuencia se observan diferentes barreras para la utilización efectiva de los conocimientos. Además, se tiene la falsa impresión de que la investigación en las ciencias de salud resulta una actividad poco responsiva ante las necesidades de los actores sociales que podrían beneficiarse de su uso. En este contexto, en el presente artículo se presenta una revisión general del concepto de transferencia tecnológica, los modelos que se han desarrollado para llevar a cabo ésta y un ejemplo de cómo se ha iniciado la transferencia de un programa de intervención en el ámbito de las adicciones en México y cuáles son sus retos para el avance de dicho proceso y su posible adopción en centros de atención a las adicciones. Se concluye que, para cumplir con la incorporación de tratamientos en instituciones de atención de adicciones, hace falta evaluar la efectividad del programa de intervención breve en escenarios clínicos, cumplir con todos los indicadores CONSORT de los ensayos clínicos aleatorizados e integrar al proceso de transferencia cuatro aspectos principales: 1. propiciar un mayor acercamiento con los profesionales de la salud; 2. permitir la "reinvención" del programa dentro de un contexto de colaboración entre los actores involucrados y evaluar dicho proceso; 3. considerar limitaciones, recursos, objetivos y prácticas de la institución donde se pretende transferir el programa y 4. ofrecer seguimiento a largo plazo para evaluar el éxito de la adopción de la innovación.

The knowledge provided by psychology should respond to different problems, which can only be achieved when the findings from scientific evidence become available to other scientific groups and social nuclei, in order to achieve them appropriately and use them to solve problems, improve their quality of life, or prevent a potentially hazardous situation. However, various barriers to the effective use of knowledge are often observed. In addition, there exists the false impression that research in the health sciences is an activity that rarely meets the needs of the social actors who might benefit from its use. In this context, this paper presents a general overview of the concept of technology transfer, the models that have been developed to perform this and an example of how the transfer of an intervention program in the field of addictions in Mexico has been started and what the challenges are to advancing this process and its possible adoption in addiction centers. The authors conclude that in order to comply with the incorporation of treatments at addiction treatment institutions, it is essential to evaluate the effectiveness of the brief intervention program in clinical settings, adhere to all the CONSORT indicators for randomized clinical trials and incorporate four main aspects into the transfer process: 1. foster closer relations with health professionals; 2. allow the "reinvention" of the program within a context of collaboration between stakeholders and evaluate this process; 3. consider the constraints, resources, objectives and practices of the institution to which the program is to be transferred, and 4. provide long-term monitoring to assess the success of the adoption of the innovation.

Las conductas adictivas desde un enfoque social / Addictive behaviors from a social perspective

Introducción: durante años la farmacodependencia se consideró una problemática social y no una enfermedad, la víctima una escoria social y no un enfermo; se ha tratado de encubrir lo social como elemento primordial en la causalidad y agravamiento de la enfermedad, así como su importancia al ser una de las esferas más afectadas no sólo de la víctima, sino a nivel familiar, comunitario e inclusive de la nación. Objetivo: caracterizar los elementos esenciales donde lo social se expresa en las conductas adictivas. Material y Método: ce realizó una revisión bibliográfica mediante la consulta de bases de datos de los sistemas referativos, como CUMED y PUBMED, con la utilización de descriptores como drogas, sociedad, enfoques sociales, evidencias científicas, de los 5 años previos a la revisión. Desarrollo: lo social es fundamental en el abordaje de las conductas adictivas, donde su tergiversación o deficitario enfoque en aspectos transcendentales como la conceptualización de la enfermedad, el estatus de la víctima como un enfermo, la importancia del papel que desempeña la sociedad en la etiología y la rehabilitación de las conductas adictivas han ocasionado muchísimos perjuicios a la prevención y tratamiento efectivos de las mismas. Conclusiones: deben reevaluarse los enfoques sociales que han caracterizado a las conductas adictivas, despojarlos del carácter discriminatorio y acercarlos al pensamiento científico y los nuevos conocimientos donde lo social alcance su objetiva expresión en el proceso evolutivo de la enfermedad. Las adicciones son enfermedades crónicas, en las que el elemento social es significativo en la etiología, rehabilitación y seguimiento del paciente.

Introduction: during years the drug addiction considered a social problems itself and not join disease, the victim a social scum and no a sick person, it has been tried to conceal what's social like primary element in causality and aggravation of the disease, the same way that of his importance to being you join of the more spheres affected not only of the victim, but to family, communal level and inclusive of the nation. Objective: characterizing the essential elements where what's social expresses itself in the addictive conducts. Material and Methods: a bibliographical revision was carried out by means of the consultation of databases, as CUMED y PUBMED with the use of describers like drugs, scientific evidence, social approaches, society, of the five previous years to revision. Development: what's social is fundamental in the boarding of the addictive conducts, where his misrepresentation or showing a deficit focus in transcendental aspects like the conceptualization of the disease, the status of the victim like a sick person, the importance of the role that you perform the society in etiology and the rehabilitation of the addictive conducts many damages have caused to prevention and treatment effective of addictive conducts. Conclusions: they are due reevaluarse the social focuses that have characterized the addictive conducts, stripping them of the discriminatory character and bringing them closer to the scientific pansy and the new knowledge where the social reach his objective expression in the evolutionary process of the disease.

Nuevas evidencias sobre Vicente Antonio de Castro y Bermúdez / New evidence on Vicente Antonio de Castro y Bermúdez

Introducción: el desarrollo adquirido en las ciencias básicas fundamentales como anatomía y fisiología hicieron del Dr. Vicente Antonio de Castro y Bermúdez, un observador sagaz y un hábil cirujano, a continuación veremos sus aportes en las diferentes especialidades médicas. Objetivo: mostrar nuevas evidencia de la actividad profesional del Dr. Vicente Antonio de Castro y Bermúdez. Desarrollo: es considerado uno de los iniciadores de la cirugía para corregir el estrabismo, según constancia del bibliógrafo Dr. Carlos M. Trilles. Fue iniciador de algunas intervenciones en el campo de la angiología. Realizó la ligadura en 1842 la arteria iliaca externa a un africano en el Hospital de San Juan de Dios y la subclavia derecha en 1848 refiere Trelles Govín.Dentro del campo de la ortopedia, se encontró una nueva evidencia recién encontrada por el autor que no fue señalada por ninguno de los historiadores de la medicina en Cuba del siglo XX y esta primera década del XXI, pues incursionó también en la cirugía ortopédica. Conclusiones: se hace reconocimiento los maestros que contribuyeron con sus lecciones y sus escritos a los primeros progresos de la medicina cubana y a despertar el entusiasmo por esta clase de estudios en nuestra juventud universitaria.

Background: the development acquired in the basic sciences such as anatomy and physiology made Dr. Vicente Antonio Bermudez de Castro a keen observer and a skilled surgeon; below we will see his contributions to different medical specialties. Objective: to show new evidence on professional activity of Dr. Vicente Antonio de Castro y Bermúdez. Development: he is considered one of the pioneers of surgery for the correction of strabismus, according to constancy presented by bibliographer, Dr Carlos M. Trilles. He was the initiator of some interventions in the field of Angiology. He performed external iliac artery ligation to an African patient in 1842 in San Juan de Dios Hospital and right subdavia in 1848 as referred by Trelles Govín. In the field of Orthopedics, new evidence recently found by the author appeared which was not presented by the historians of Medicine in Cuba during the 20th Century and the first decade of the 21st Century when He also made incursions on Orthopedic Surgery. Conclusions: professional recognitions are made to his elections and writings which contributed to the progress of Cuban Medicine and awaken the enthusiasm for this type of studies in our university students.

La evidencia científica y la intervención farmacológica preventiva en geriatría / Scientific evidence and preventive pharmacological intervention in geriatrics

Los adultos mayores constituyen un grupo poblacional que cada día va en aumento, y son ellos los que requieren mayor atención médica y los que consumen un número elevado de fármacos. Este trabajo intenta hacer una revisión sobre la prescripción de fármacos con fines preventivos en el adulto mayor según las evidencias científicas. La polifarmacia en el anciano incrementa las posibilidades de reacciones adversas a los medicamentos, interacciones entre ellos potencialmente deletéreas, aumento de los ingresos hospitalarios por esta causa y aumento de los gastos en salud. Los fármacos constituyen la primera fuente de trastornos yatrogénicos en los ancianos, atribuible a que muchas veces se indican de forma irracional y se aplican malas prácticas de prescripción sin un sustento científico sólido. Se espera contribuir a que el médico desarrolle la habilidad de prescribir el fármaco de manera eficaz, conveniente, con prudencia clínica y distancie las recomendaciones sesgadas del mercado en términos de terapéutica. Es importante mejorar la prescripción farmacológica en aras de una mejor calidad de vida en el adulto mayor

The older adults are a population group that increases every day and they require more medical care and consume a large number of drugs. This paper was intended to make a review on drug prescription for preventive purposes in the elderly on the basis of scientific evidence. The multiple drug consumption by the elderly increases the possibilities of suffering adverse reactions to drugs, potentially deleterious interactions, rise of admissions at hospital due to this problem and higher health expenses. The drugs are the first source of iatrogenic disorders in the aged people, often attributable to irrational and wrong practices of prescription without any sound scientific support. This paper was expected to contribute to developing the skill of prescribing a drug in an effective, convenient and prudent way, thus paying little attention to the market-biased recommendations in terms of therapeutics. It is important to improve drug prescription towards a better quality of life for the older people

Prescripción basada en evidencia científica en la atención primaria de salud / Scientific evidence-based prescribing in primary health care

Introducción: la medicina basada en evidencia es una respuesta natural a la necesidad de crear un modelo de atención médica que permita la integración en la práctica diaria, de los resultados de los avances en materia de investigación clínica. Objetivos: caracterizar el uso de la medicina basada en la evidencia en el acto de la prescripción. Métodos: se realizó un estudio descriptivo de corte transversal, en el primer nivel de asistencia médica. Se incluyeron de manera aleatoria 9 provincias del país (Santiago de Cuba, Camagüey, Matanzas, Holguín, Pinar del Río, La Habana, Ciego de Ávila, Granma y Guantánamo) que constituyen el 60 porciento y de estas el 25 porciento de los policlínicos (82). La selección de estos se realizó por un muestreo aleatorio simple con el programa estadístico EPIDAT. Se incluyó 765 prescriptores que prestaban servicios en las áreas seleccionadas en el momento de la aplicación del instrumento. Para la recogida de la información se diseñó un cuestionario Prescribir con evidencia científica, con el objetivo de capturar toda la información relativa a las variables definidas. Resultados: más de la mitad de los encuestados (442) expresó que sentián la necesidad de buscar información frecuentemente; esta aumentó en los profesionales con experiencia, aunque la frecuencia anual con que lo hacen es baja, con un promedio de 6,48 veces al año y una moda de cero. Las interacciones medicamentosas fueron los aspectos de la prescripción acerca de los cuales los encuestados refirieron tener más dudas (69,4 porciento). Conclusiones: la mitad de los encuestados señaló que sentián frecuentemente la necesidad de consultar publicaciones científicas para dar respuesta a dudas relacionadas con el acto de la prescripción; sin embargo, la fuente que más empleron fueron los libros impresos y los cursos de actualización...

Introduction: evidence-based medicine is a natural response to the need of creating a healthcare model that allows the integration of the results of the advances in clinical research into daily practice. Objectives: To characterize the use of evidence-based medicine in the act of prescribing. Methods: We conducted a cross sectional study in the first level of care. We included, at random, 9 provinces (Santiago de Cuba, Havana, Matanzas, Pinar del Rio, Camagüey, Ciego de Avila, Holguín, Granma and Guantanamo) that constitute 60 percent and of these, 25 percent of the clinics (82). The selection of these was by simple random sampling with the statistical program EPIDAT. 765 prescribers were included since they were serving in the selected areas at the time of the application of this instrument. For the collection of information a questionnaire Prescribing scientific evidence was designed in order to capture all the information on the variables defined. Results: Over half of respondents (442) noted that often feel the need to seek information, this necessity increases when less time professional experience, although the frequency of seeking for more information is annually low, with an average of 6, 48 times a year and a mode of zero. Concerning prescriptions, the respondents reported having more questions (69.4 percent) about drug interactions. Conclusions: Half of the respondents stated that they often feel a need for review of scientific literature to answer questions during the act of prescribing. However, the sources they use are printed and updating courses. Interactions and adverse reactions are the aspects that they usually seek about, but they refer they often take into account the availability of the drug at the time of prescribing

Los ensayos clínicos y su contribución a la salud pública cubana / Clinical trials and their contribution to Cuban public health

La salud pública ha avanzado en los últimos años, en aras de mejorar la calidad de las evidencias científicas que sustentan las intervenciones y determinadas acciones de salud. La evaluación de la efectividad de las intervenciones en el ámbito clínico se basa en el diseño de ensayos clínicos controlados y aleatorizados, que sirven como una de las fuentes más confiables para la toma de decisiones en salud pública, a pesar de sus limitaciones. Se generan tensiones entre los investigadores e instituciones y los sistemas de salud pública, puesto que en ocasiones existen dudas de que los resultados de dichos estudios puedan generalizarse en la práctica. Las diferentes características que conforman el mundo de los investigadores y el de los responsables políticos, incluidos plazos, intereses y prioridades; pueden contribuir a estas tensiones e impedir la conexión entre los resultados de la investigación con los decisores en el campo de la salud pública. En este trabajo se hacen algunas consideraciones al respecto y se explica brevemente la situación en Cuba

Public health has advanced in recent years in order to improve the quality of scientific evidence supporting interventions and specific health actions. The evaluation of the effectiveness of interventions in the clinical setting is mainly based on the design of randomized controlled trials which serve, despite their limitations, as one of the most trusted sources for making public health decisions. On the other hand, there are controversies between the investigators, institutions and the public health systems, due to some uncertainty about the generalization of these results in the public health. The differences between the characteristics of the researchers' world and those of the world of policymakers, including deadlines, interests and priorities, can contribute to these controversies, thus preventing the connection of research findings to decision-makers in this field. This paper made some considerations in this regard and briefly explained the present situation in Cuba

La investigación en enfermería en América Latina 2000-2010 / Nursing research in Latin America 2000-2010

La investigación científica es un proceso que procura obtener información relevante y fidedigna acerca de la realidad, para entender, verificar, corregir y aplicar el conocimiento mediante la aplicación del método científico. Los avances científico-técnico mundial con la introducción y renovación continua de la tecnología obliga a emplear novedosas estrategias en la enseñanza, para garantizar un egresado con perfil amplio, que conozca y aplique en su quehacer profesional el método científico de su profesión de forma creadora y resuelva los problemas que se le planteen en el ejercicio de esta. En la literatura, se pueden encontrar diversidad de criterios y opiniones acerca de la actividad investigativa como uno de los elementos de la producción científica de Enfermería en la región de las Américas. De manera que es propósito de este artículo el analizar el estado actual de la temática, mediante las evidencias que ofrece la literatura en diferentes países de la región que ayuden a explicar la escasa producción científica de este profesional. Este propósito se alcanzó mediante la consulta de artículos sobre investigación en Enfermería en revistas indexada en las bases de datos SciELO, Medline, Hinari y otras en las que se pudiera encontrar información relacionada con la temática en diferentes países, y, en particular, de la región, publicadas en los últimos 10 años y que resultaron un producto de investigación científica de los profesionales del gremio en el área. Entre las principales razones que explican la pobre producción científica de Enfermería, se encuentra la poca preparación en materias como Metodología de la Investigación, la falta de apoyo, el considerar la actividad investigativa como algo difícil, complicado y no tener claridad de las temáticas sobre las cuales puede y debe investigar la Enfermería.

The scientific research is a process that produces get reliable and outstanding information about de reality, for understanding, verify, put right and mostly apply the knowledge through the application of scientific method. The scientific tecnic advance in the world with the introduction and continue renovation of the technology force to used new strategies in the teaching, for guarantee a professional graduated with big perfil, and then know a lot about infirmary and used that knowledge's in the professional activity in the scientific method in the profession, and creative way, resolve the problems in the practice of the profession. In the literature we can find some opinions about scientific production to nurses in the region of Americas. This article pretends to analyze the current status of the scientific production the infirmary through the evidence in the bibliographic revision. Among principal reasons to explain the poor scientific production in the nurses in the regions we can find the poor knowledge's about methodology to research; they consider the investigate activity is something difficult and complicate and also, have not got notion about topics that this professional can be research in infirmary, between others reasons.

Report on the ICMART conference in Den Haag / 全日本鍼灸学会雑誌

I observed the ICMART (International Council of Medical Acupuncture and Related Techniques) World Congress on Medical Acupuncture held on May 13-15, 2011 in Den Haag (Netherlands). The ICMART is an association of western medical societies mainly interested in scientific evidence for acupuncture and other oriental medical techniques. Naturally, the number of presentations dealing with scientific evidence in relation to oriental medicine outnumbered those dealing with clinical aspects or traditional characteristics. The presented results showed, however, that while one set of evidence proves one thing, for example whether acupoints are really points or rather extended areas, another set proves the exact opposite and thus renders either the scientific questionable and the applied methods and/or the obtained results at least questionable. On the other hand, presentations dealing with traditional characteristics or techniques sometimes presented no evidence at all, or did not explain the rational behind the shown results. <BR>Extensive discussion about the integration of alternative medicine into mainstream medicine showed that this subject is much more related to political and financial questions than patient interests, but there seemed also to be some progress and hope for future development.

Obesity management and scientific evidence

Obesity is now recognized as a critical target for public health intervention in many parts of the world, affecting virtually all age and socio-economic groups within both developed and developing countries. This study's objective is to provide an overview of the full range of methods and models available for weight loss, including some methods used by overweight and obese people without medical supervision. Many diverse approaches for achieving weight loss and weight maintenance have been evaluated. According to some evidence-based guidelines, in order to achieve the best treatment outcomes, it is recommended that a combination of dietary therapy with low-calorie diet, increased physical activity, and behavioral therapy be incorporated. Advances in treatment and innovative policy initiatives focusing on prevention could reverse the global problem of obesity and overweight. The most effective forms of treatment require collaboration among health care providers in primary care settings, including nurses, dietitians, psychologists, physicians, and psychiatrists. Effective strategies for weight loss require management strategies that combine dietary therapy and physical activity by using behavioral interventions. Thus, in the near future, the Korean government must develop evidence-based (clinical or community) guidelines for obesity management. Also, due to the lack of high quality primary studies on obesity management in Korea, future randomized clinical or community trials are recommended in this area.

Korean consumers' perceptions of health/functional food claims according to the strength of scientific evidence

In this study, we investigated that consumers could differentiate between levels of claims and clarify how a visual aid influences consumer understanding of the different claim levels. We interviewed 2,000 consumers in 13 shopping malls on their perception of and confidence in different levels of health claims using seven point scales. The average confidence scores given by participants were 4.17 for the probable level and 4.07 for the possible level; the score for the probable level was significantly higher than that for the possible level (P < 0.05). Scores for confidence in claims after reading labels with and without a visual aid were 5.27 and 4.43, respectively; the score for labeling with a visual aid was significantly higher than for labeling without a visual aid (P < 0.01). Our results provide compelling evidence that providing health claims with qualifying language differentiating levels of scientific evidence can help consumers understand the strength of scientific evidence behind those claims. Moreover, when a visual aid was included, consumers perceived the scientific levels more clearly and had greater confidence in their meanings than when a visual aid was not included. Although this result suggests that consumers react differently to different claim levels, it is not yet clear whether consumers understand the variations in the degree of scientific support.