El estudio de los efectos de la modalidad lingüística en el léxico mental / The study of the effects of linguistic modality on the mental lexicon

Resumen El estudio se cuestiona sobre un abordaje fructífero en el estudio de los efectos de la modalidad lingüística (de señas versus oral) en la organización de la memoria semántica. Para responder la pregunta de investigación, un aspecto central es definir criterios y procedimientos capaces de distinguir entre los factores transportados por la modalidad lingüística de los que le son propios. Entre los primeros, se encuentran la edad de exposición a la lengua natural y su distribución funcional, etaria o geográfica. Entre los aspectos propios de la modalidad se incluyen la iconicidad y el grado de concreción/abstracción de las piezas léxicas. Se sugiere centrarse en el uso de dicho gradiente para evocar dominios conceptuales. Si lo concreto/abstracto es un continuo, entonces hay que preguntarse qué forma de organización es predominante en el léxico mental de las poblaciones señantes u oyentes y qué factores modulan el perfil de esa organización.

Abstract The efforts to understand the relationship of the meaning of a lexical piece to the object to which it refers, the relationship between the lexical pieces and the concepts, and the understanding of the meanings shared between two speakers who use the same lexical pieces have all constituted major problems for the semantic memory models. According to contemporary literature, perceptual-motor, linguistic, and social information have different weights in the formation of concepts, whether concrete or abstract, stored in the aforementioned memory. Regardless of the models developed so far, it is interesting to note that semantic knowledge is represented by various ways of relating the concepts and the types of relationships between them. In this context, studies in sign languages and comparative studies between spoken and sign languages are scarce. Thus, little is known about the effect of linguistic modality on the semantic networks. After all, the theory on semantic networks and norms for the production of features has been grounded on theories of language and its processing adjusted to spoken languages. As the incorporation of the sign language and the Deaf population has shown in other psycholinguistic and linguistic topics, the importance of including these languages and populations, and comparatives with spoken languages, might increase the explanatory power of the theory to account for the universal and contextual aspects of language and its processing. In this effort, there is a latent risk: the linguistic modality can be only a vehicle for more well-known or studied cross-modal variables (e. g., age of acquisition, functional distribution of language, size of the available lexicon, etc.). If it is considered that languages are not stored together, but similar processes can occur in them, it is essential to find out what may be a singular feature of each modality (spoken versus sign) that might ground differentiated processes. Considering the high iconicity of the sign languages and the possibility of a high concreteness of the lexical pieces in the sign language as distinctive features -not collapsible into well-known variables such as the aforementioned-, this article suggests a careful approach to avoid the aforementioned risk in the study of the effects of the linguistic modality (sign versus oral) in the organization of semantic memory. Since perceptual-motor and social information are the main sources of iconicity, a balanced instrument is necessary in the evocation of perceptual-motor, social, and linguistic information. Repeated free word association tasks seem like an appropriate paradigm for a suggested approach. The reasons for this are that, by not censoring the types of response, then free association tasks allow capturing all kinds of concepts (concrete or abstract), all kinds of semantic relationships/organization (paradigmatic versus thematic) and all kinds of processes (comparison versus interaction). This type of task therefore makes it possible to collect meanings related to linguistic information and non-linguistic experience because affective and experiential information is accessible by doing the task in different repetitions. The approach and the tool are exemplified by an ongoing comparative study between Deaf signing and hearing populations. The partial findings of this study also serve to focus on the expected effects of the difference in iconicity and the level of concreteness/abstractness of the lexical pieces of each linguistic modality; namely, the differences between an abstract and a concrete conceptualization of the conceptual domains. Taxonomic and introspective labels might appear as indicative of paradigmatic relationships, of a taxonomic organization, and of underlying comparison processes. On the other hand, the situational and entity labels, indicative of syntagmatic relationships, of a thematic organization and of underlying interaction processes, might suggest a predominantly concrete organization.

Depressive symptoms may be associated with semantic memory decline in elderly adults / Sintomas depressivos podem estar associados a declínio na memória semântica em idosos

ABSTRACT Depressive symptoms are associated with a decline of episodic memory, but the relationship with semantic memory remains unclear. Objective: The aim of the study was to analyze the relationship of depressive symptoms with the semantic memory in a community-based sample of elderly adults. The sample comprised two groups, namely, clinical (with depressive symptoms) and control. Methods: The following instruments were used General Evaluation Questionnaire, Montreal Cognitive Assessment-Basic, Wechsler Abbreviate Scale of Intelligence, Geriatric Depression Scale-30 (GDS-30), Beck Depression Inventory-II, Boston Nomination Test (BNT), vocabulary, verbal fluency test (fruits and animals), and Brief Cognitive Screening Battery. Results: The results showed a significant difference between groups only in BNT. A significant correlation was observed between the BNT and GDS-30. Participants with symptoms of severe depression performed poorly on BNT when compared with individuals with mild symptoms. Conclusion: These results support the hypothesis that depressive symptoms in elderly adults can affect semantic memory and may worsen with the severity of symptoms.

RESUMO Sintomas depressivos estão associados ao declínio da memória episódica, mas sua relação com a memória semântica permanece obscura. Objetivo: O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar a relação dos sintomas depressivos à memória semântica em idosos que vivem na comunidade. A amostra foi composta de dois grupos: clínico (com sintomas depressivos) e controle. Método: Foram utilizados os seguintes instrumentos: Questionário de Avaliação Geral, Montreal Cognitive Assessment-Basic (MoCA-B), Wechsler Abbreviate Scale of Intelligence (WASI), Geriatric Depression Scale-30 (GDS-30), Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II), Teste de Nomeação de Boston (TNB), Vocabulário, Fluência Verbal (Frutas e Animais) e Bateria Breve de Rastreio Cognitivo. Resultados: Os resultados evidenciaram diferença significativa entre os grupos apenas no BNT. Foi observada uma correlação significativa entre TNB e GDS-30. Os participantes com sintomas de depressão grave tiveram um desempenho pior no BNT, quando comparados aos indivíduos com sintomas leves. Conclusão: Esses resultados apoiam a hipótese de que os sintomas depressivos em idosos podem afetar a memória semântica e aumentam com a gravidade dos sintomas.

Semantic memory impairment and neuroregulation in patients with mild cognitive impairment / 中国组织工程研究

BACKGROUND: Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive neurological degenerative disease characterized by cognitive decline. Cognitive decline can make the elderly gradually losing their self-care ability, which eventually affects daily life and activities. Mild cognitive impairment is a precursor state of Alzheimer’s disease, and to diagnose and treat mild cognitive impairment as soon as possible has great significance in preventing the development of Alzheimer’s disease. OBJECTIVE: To summarize the development and future prospects of the assessment and treatment of semantic memory disorders due to mild cognitive impairment. METHODS: A computer-based retrieval of PubMed, Web of Science, CNKI, and WanFang was performed for related studies on the evaluation and treatment of mild cognitive impairment in semantic memory. The keywords were “mild cognitive impairment, semantic memory impairment, semantic memory deficit” in English and Chinese, respectively. The retrieval time was from January 2009 to November 2019. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: Semantic memory disorder is one of the main clinical symptoms of mild cognitive impairment, and has certain specificity. At present, there are different types of memory scales that can be used as neurophysiological measures of semantic memory disorder due to mild cognitive impairment. The temporal lobe, frontal lobe, and premotor region may participate in the semantic memory loop. Targeted semantic memory neurophysiology and auxiliary examinations, and targeted semantic memory rehabilitation training can be helpful for early identification of the occurrence and transformation of mild cognitive impairment.

Evaluación neuropsicológica de la memoria semántica en demencia presenil y declive cognitivo atípico: ¿estamos preparados? / Neuropsychological assessment of semantic memory in presenile dementia and atypical cognitive decline: ¿are we prepared?

El envejecimiento de la población es un fenómeno demográfico de preocupación mundial. Junto al aumento de la población mayor, aumenta también el número de enfermedades neurodegenerativas. La enfermedad de Alzheimer y la demencia frontotemporal, son las principales causas del envejecimiento cognitivo patológico, diferenciando dentro de su progresión al Deterioro Cognitivo Leve (DCL) y la demencia. La memoria semántica permite el procesamiento, almacenamiento y representación de información que subyace la comprensión y uso del significado de todo lo que nos rodea, permitiendo la autonomía en el desempeño de actividades de la vida diaria, por lo tanto, su compromiso conlleva a un estado de demencia. Uno de los principales objetivos de estudio clínico y de impacto en salud pública es la detección precoz de la demencia, dirigido hacia un tratamiento farmacológico, no-farmacológico y manejo psicosocial oportuno. Actualmente, los casos de demencias preseniles y las presentaciones iniciales con perfiles atípicos han aumentado, siendo la memoria semántica una de estas manifestaciones. En Chile existen efectivas herramientas para la detección de un envejecimiento cognitivo patológico, sin embargo, no se cuenta con herramientas evaluativas para un diagnóstico efectivo en casos atípicos.

Population ageing is a demographic phenomenon of global concern. As the elderly population increases, so does the number of neurodegenerative diseases. Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal dementia are the main causes of pathological cognitive aging, differentiating between Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) and dementia. Semantic memory allows the processing, storage and representation of information that underlies the understanding and use of the meaning of everything that surrounds us, allowing autonomy in the performance of activities of daily life, therefore, it's commitment leads to a state of dementia. One of the main objectives of clinical studies and public health impact is the early detection of dementia, aimed at a pharmacological treatment, non-pharmacological, and timely psychosocial management. Currently, cases of presenile dementias and initial presentations with atypical profiles have increased, with semantic memory being one of these manifestations. In Chile, there are effective tools for detection of a pathological cognitive aging, however, there are no evaluative tools for an effective diagnosis in atypical cases.

The effect of transcranial direct current stimulation on memory function / 中华行为医学与脑科学杂志

Memory function is the core component of human brain cognition.Memory impairment significantly affects people's daily life and social ability,but existing cognitive training or drug therapy can not effectively improve memory function.In recent years,new techniques and methods have been emerging in brain science research,especially neural regulation techniques,such as transcranial electrical / magnetic stimulation,which can significantly regulate cognitive ability and effectively promote memory function.Transcranial direct current stimulation is a kind of noninvasive and safe technique.It can regulate cerebral cortex activity by changing the cerebral cortex excitability,and play a role in regulating brain function.At present,there have been reports at home and abroad that transcranial direct current stimulation can promote memory function and improve memory effectively.This technique is applied to the diagnosis and treatment of clinical diseases,but its mechanism is not clear.This article reviews the mechanism and application of transcranial direct current stimulation (TDCS) in promoting different types of memory function in order to provide evidence for early intervention and treatment of memory impairment.

Qualitative Comparison of Semantic Memory Impairment in Patients with Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment Based on β-Amyloid Status

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Semantic memory remains more stable than episodic memory across the lifespan, which makes it potentially useful as a marker for distinguishing pathological aging from normal senescence. To obtain a better understanding of the transitional stage evolving into Alzheimer's dementia (AD), we focused on the amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) stage stratified based on β-amyloid (Aβ) pathology. METHODS: We analyzed the raw data from Korean version of the Boston Naming Test (K-BNT) and the Controlled Oral Word Association Test (COWAT). For K-BNT, the frequencies of six error types and accuracy rates were evaluated. For a qualitative assessment of the COWAT, we computed the number of switching, number of clusters, and mean cluster size. RESULTS: The data from 217 participants were analyzed (53 normal controls, 66 with Aβ− aMCI, 56 with Aβ+ aMCI, and 42 disease controls). There were fewer semantically related errors and more semantically unrelated errors on the K-BNT in Aβ+ aMCI than in Aβ− aMCI, without a gross difference in the z score. We also found that Aβ+ aMCI showed a more prominent deficit in the number of clusters in the semantic fluency task [especially for animal names (living items)] than Aβ− aMCI. CONCLUSIONS: In spite of similar clinical manifestations, Aβ+ aMCI was more similar to AD than Aβ− aMCI in terms of semantic memory disruption. Semantic memory may serve as an early indicator of brain Aβ pathology. Therefore, semantic memory dysfunction deserves more consideration in clinical practice. Longitudinal research with the follow-up data is needed.

Development of a Screening Algorithm for Alzheimer's Disease Using Categorical Fluency and Confrontational Naming Abilities

OBJECTIVE: Declines in naming ability and semantic memory are well-known features of early Alzheimer's disease (AD). We developed a new screening algorithm for AD using two brief language tests : the Categorical Fluency Test (CFT) and 15-item Boston Naming Test (BNT15). METHODS: We administered the CFT, BNT15, and Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) to 150 AD patients with a Clinical Dementia Rating of 0.5 or 1 and to their age- and gender-matched cognitively normal controls. We developed a composite score for screening AD (LANGuage Composite score, LANG-C) that comprised demographic characteristics, BNT15 subindices, and CFT subindices. We compared the diagnostic accuracies of the LANG-C and MMSE using receiver operating curve analysis. RESULTS: The LANG-C was calculated using the logit of test scores weighted by their coefficients from forward stepwise logistic regression models : logit (case)=12.608−0.107×age+1.111×gender+0.089×education−0.314×HS(1st)−0.362×HS(2nd)+0.455×perseveration+1.329×HFCR(2nd)−0.489×MFCR(1st)−0.565×LFCR(3rd). The area under the curve of the LANG-C for diagnosing AD was good (0.894, 95% confidence interval=0.853–0.926 ; sensitivity=0.787, specificity=0.840), although it was smaller than that of the MMSE. CONCLUSION: The LANG-C, which is easy to automate using PC or smart devices and to deliver widely via internet, can be a good alternative for screening AD to MMSE.

PAPDI: Prueba Argentina Psicolingüística de Denominación de Imágenes.: Segunda parte: Estudio de sus propiedades psicométricas / PAPDI: Argentinean Psycholinguistic Image Naming Test.: Second part: Study of psychometric properties

En el presente trabajo se detallan los análisis realizados con el fin de estudiar las propiedades psicométricas la Prueba Argentina Psicolingüística de Denominación de Imágenes (PAPDI). La misma cuenta con dos cualidades que representan un valor agregado frente a las pruebas actualmente disponibles en nuestro país: a) los estímulos fueron seleccionados controlando las variables que afectan las etapas de análisis visual y de representación conceptual de la imagen del objeto y se manipularon las variables que afectan la selección y recuperación de la etiqueta léxica, en base a valores normativos de población argentina; y b) las claves semánticas se elaboraron de acuerdo con normas de producción de atributos semánticos también recolectadas en nuestro país. En este trabajo se analizaron las propiedades psicométricas mediante el estudio de pacientes con demencia tipo Alzheimer, con lesiones cerebrales focales y participantes sin patología neurológica. Se buscaron evidencias de validez de criterio mediante el análisis de grupos contrastados y la correlación con el test de Boston. A su vez, se estudió la confiabilidad de las puntuaciones por dos métodos: consistencia interna y test-retest. También se analizó la capacidad de discriminación entre pacientes con y sin anomia mediante curvas ROC. Se estudiaron además los efectos de las variables manipuladas, se realizó un análisis cualitativo de los errores y se examinó el desempeño en función del uso de las claves. Los resultados de los análisis aportan evidencia de que presenta cualidades psicométricas sumamente aceptables para su uso en nuestra población.

In the current paper we present the psychometric analysis of the Argentinean Psycholinguistic Image Naming Test (PAPDI). This test has two characteristics that makes it different from those currently available in our country: a) the stimuli has been chosen and ordered controlling certain psycholinguistic variables proven to have influence on this task, such as Visual Complexity, Image Agreement, Image Variability, Familiarity, Name Agreement, Age of Acquisition and Frequency of Use, following Argentinean normative data base; and b) semantic cues were elaborated according to semantic feature production norms also from Argentina. We present here the psychometric analysis of its properties. There were analyzed through the study of patients with Alzheimer Disease (n = 25) and focal brain lesions (n = 27) and healthy partici-pants (n = 125). On the first place, in order to study criteria validity a group comparison analysis was carried out. On the one hand Alzheimer Disease patients were compared with healthy participants. On the other hand, two focal brain damaged patients were compared: with and without aphasia. Convergent validity was also studied through the correlation with Boston naming test. In the third place, scores reliability was studied through two methods: internal consistency analysis, for Alzheimer, focal and healthy groups, and test-retest for focal brain damage group. Forth, it was analyzed the capacity to discriminate between patient with and without aphasia through ROC curves analysis. The respective sensitivity and specificity values to detect anomia were established. Fifth, the demographic variables´ influence was analyzed through a regression analysis. Moreover, there were analyzed the effects of two psycholinguistic variables that were taken into account to order the images but were not normalized: Lexical Frequency and Age of Acquisition. Finally, type of errors and response to cues were studied for focal brain damaged patients. The results indicated that the PAPDI presents acceptable psychometric properties to be used as a tool in neuropsychological assessment. It showed evidence of internal and external validity and it was observed scores reliability through internal consistency and test-retest. A suggested cutting point was established to detect anomia. Furthermore a main influence of educational level was reported. There were also detected effects of Lexical Frequency and Age of Acquisition which were observed for Alzheimer and aphasic patients groups. Moreover it was illustrated the response profile analysis for aphasic and nonaphasic focal brain damaged patients regarding a proposed taxonomy of error types. It was also studied the response to semantic and phonological cues and it was observed that both contributed to improve patients´ performance.

Assessing knowledge: psychometric properties of the BAMS semantic memory battery

Abstract Background: Semantic memory is a cultural influenced cognitive domain that is responsible for our knowledge about words and the world. Semantic Memory Battery (BAMS) is a new battery that evaluate semantic memory based on a compendium of tasks, including verbal fluency, naming, conceptualization, categorization, general questions, and word definitions, and was designed to consider cultural aspects. Objectives: We aimed to evaluate the BAMS psychometrics structure comprising classical and modern analysis, and also evaluate a clinical subdivision of the battery. Methods: 114 Brazilian cognitively healthy older adults BAMS performance provided data for psychometric analysis using validity tests, item response theory analysis and confirmatory factor analysis for goodness-of-fit measures. Results: BAMS results revealed good validity and good-fit measures in each subtest, total score (X2 = 20.684, p = 0.110) and a hierarchical structure with clinical subdivision of the battery (X2 = 20.089, p = 0.093). Discussion: BAMS is a new compendium of tasks that evaluate distinct aspects of semantic memory and can clinically consider the impact of executive function. This battery evaluates verbal fluency, naming, conceptualization, categorization, general knowledge and word definitions. The BAMS has clinical importance once semantic memory is mostly influenced by culture and language, and there is an absence of broadly semantic memory tests in our scenario, especially with older adults that can have a pathological aging condition that affects primarily or secondarily this domain.

Memória semântica como fator de resiliência cognitiva em idosos / Semantic memory as a factor of cognitive resilience in the elderly

O processo de envelhecimento é marcado por múltiplos fatores de risco e proteção. A escolaridade em anos reportados tem sido a principal medida que reflete uma resiliência cognitiva durante esse processo, beneficiando o idoso ao lidar com os impactos do envelhecimento. No entanto, ainda são poucos os estudos realizados com amostras socioculturais diversas que possuem fatores específicos que influenciam esse processo. Faz-se necessário verificar se o uso de fatores de resiliência identificados em estudos internacionais é aplicado ao cenário brasileiro. Considerando as particularidades nacionais que permeiam os fatores de resiliência tradicionais, buscou-se verificar se a memória semântica, uma habilidade cristalizada construída ao longo da vida através de exposições culturais, acadêmicas e ocupacionais, é capaz de agir como uma melhor medida de resiliência cognitiva em nosso contexto. Foram realizados quatro estudos que buscaram analisar o objetivo da presente tese. No primeiro estudo uma nova medida de memória semântica desenvolvida, levando em conta a importância dos aspectos culturais e acadêmicos nacionais, demonstrou suas características psicométricas. No segundo estudo a memória semântica atuou como um moderador significativo entre idade e cognição geral, enquanto as medidas tradicionais não foram significativas. No terceiro estudo a estrutura de rede semântica foi avaliada e indicou que a organização e ativação da rede é um moderador sugestivo da relação idade-cognição geral. Por fim, no quarto estudo grupos educacionais diferentes foram submetidos a um mesmo modelo de resiliência multifatorial e indicou que idosos com diferentes níveis educacionais não se beneficiam dos mesmos fatores de resiliência. Em conjunto, os quatro estudos permitem concluir que é possível que outros fatores de resiliência cognitiva sejam mais impactantes em virtude dos fatores ambientais, que a memória semântica é um possível fator de resiliência a ser considerado em nossos estudos futuros, e que idosos com diferentes alcances educacionais podem se beneficiar de modelos mais específicos de resiliência ao invés do uso de um modelo único. Estudos com amostras maiores e longitudinais são necessários para que as limitações dos estudos desenvolvidos sejam superadas.

Multiple risk and protection factors mark the aging process. Formal education, reported in years, has been the primary cognitive resilience measure, aiding older adults to withstand the impacts of aging. However, there are still few studies carried out with diverse sociocultural samples that have specific factors that can influence this process. It is necessary to verify whether the use of resilience factors identified in international studies is applied to the Brazilian scenario. Considering the national peculiarities that permeate the traditional resilience factors, this dissertation tried to verify if the semantic memory, a crystallized ability built in life through cultural, academic and occupational expositions, is capable of acting as a better measure of cognitive resilience in our context. Four studies were carried out that sought to analyze the objective of the present dissertation. In the first study, a new measure of semantic memory was developed taking into account the importance of national, cultural, and academic aspects and demonstrated its psychometric characteristics. In the second study, semantic memory acted as a significant moderator between age and general cognition, while the traditional resilience measures were not significant. In the third study, the semantic network structure was evaluated, and it indicated that the organization and activation of that system is a suggestive moderator of the age-general cognition relationship. Finally, in the fourth study different educational groups were submitted to the same multifactorial resilience model and the results indicated that the older adults with distinct educational levels do not benefit from the same resilience factors. Together, the four studies allow us to conclude that it is possible that other factors of cognitive resilience are more impacting due to environmental factors. Additionally, semantic memory may be a possible resilience factor to be considered in our future studies, and older adults of different educational strata can benefit from more accurate models of resilience rather than the use of a unique model. Studies with larger and longitudinal samples are necessary to overcome the limitations of the present research.

Demencia semántica y demencia tipo Alzheimer ¿Igual rendimiento en tareas semánticas? / Semantic dementia and Alzheimer´s disease: similar performance in semantic tasks?

Introducción: La Demencia Semántica (DS) y la Demencia de tipo Alzheimer (DTA) presentan deterioro semántico; sin embargo, existen pocos estudios comparativos que investiguen las características de éstos déficits en estas patologías. Objetivos: Comparar perfiles de desempeño en tareas semánticas en pacientes con DS y con DTA. Metodología: Se evaluaron 24 pacientes diagnosticados con DS (N=11) o DTA (N= 13) mediante tareas de denominación de dibujos, asociaciones semánticas y fluidez semántica. Resultados: Se hallaron diferencias significativas de rendimiento en las tres tareas semánticas respecto de los controles en ambos grupos de pacientes. Conclusiones: La DS y DTA poseen perfiles de deterioro semántico diferente. El grupo de pacientes con DS presentó mayor compromiso de la memoria semántica especialmente en la tarea de asociaciones semánticas.

Introduction: Semantic Dementia (SD) and Dementia of the Alzheimer´s type (DAT) have deficits in semantic memory. However there are few comparative studies to determine their characteristic semantic impairments. Objectives: Compare performance of semantic tasks in patients with SD and DAT. Methodology: We evaluated 24 patients diagnosed with SD (N = 11) and DAT (N =13). We administered semantic tasks of picture naming, semantic associations and semantic fluency. Results: Significant differences in performance in the three semantic tasks compared to controls in both patient groups were found. Conclusions: SD and DAT profiles have different semantic impairment. The group of patients with SD had higher commitment of semantic memory especially in the task of semantic associations.

Graph analysis of semantic word association among children, adults, and the elderly / Análise de grafos de associação semântica de palavras entre crianças, adultos e idosos

This study used graph analysis to investigate how age differences modify the structure of semantic word association networks of children and adults and if the networks present a small-world structure and a scale-free distribution which are typical of natural languages. Three age groups of Brazilian Portuguese speakers (children, adults and elderly people) participated in the experiment. Quantitative and qualitative measures suggested that adults and elderly speakers have similar network structures. Children's network showed fewer nodes, connections and clusters, and longer inter-node distances. All networks presented a small-world structure, but they did not show entirely scale-free distributions. These results suggest that from childhood to adulthood, there is an increase not only in the number of words semantically linked to a target but also an increase in the connectivity of the network.

Este estudo utilizou análise de grafos para investigar como a idade modifica a estrutura das redes de associações semânticas de palavras de crianças e adultos e se estas redes apresentam estrutura small-world e distribuição scale-free típicas de linguagens naturais. Participaram dos experimentos três grupos etários (crianças, adultos e idosos) falantes do Português Brasileiro. Medidas quantitativas e qualitativas sugeriram que adultos e idosos possuem redes semelhantes quanto a número de nós, conexões e agrupamentos. A rede das crianças expressou menor número de nós, conexões e agrupamentos e maiores distancias inter-nós. As redes apresentaram uma estrutura small-world, mas não uma distribuição scale-free completa. Os resultados sugerem que além do número de palavras semanticamente associadas aos alvos aumentar das crianças para os adultos, as redes se tornaram mais conectadas.

Dissociação entre seres vivos e artefatos: investigação de efeito categoria específica no processamento de substantivos na bateria de memória semântica de cambridge / Dissociation between living and nonliving concepts: investigation of category specific effects in semantic processing using the cambridge battery of semantic memory tests

Este trabalho investigou a existência de dissociação entre seres vivos e artefatos em dois estudos: um com adultos típicos e outro com a descrição de dois pacientes que receberam diagnósticos de Demência Semântica (DS) ou de Doença de Alzheimer (DA). Para tanto, foram utilizadas as provas de fluência verbal, nomeação, compreensão e definição da Bateria de Memória Semântica de Cambridge. Entre os adultos típicos, o número de acertos em seres vivos foi maior na nomeação, definição e fluência verbal. Diante do controle das covariáveis sociodemográficas correlacionadas com as tarefas, não se encontraram diferenças significativas. Já a investigação dos dois casos identificou diferentes perfis de distúrbio nas provas. Sugere-se que o paciente com DS teve dupla-dissociação em relação aos controles e à paciente com DA. Os resultados foram discutidos com base em modelos de organização do conhecimento semântico e correlatos neuroanatômicos.

This study investigated dissociations between nouns representing living and nonliving entities in cognitively unimpaired adults and in two patients, one with Semantic Dementia (SD) and another with Alzheimer's disease (AD), using tests from the Cambridge Battery of Semantic Memory Tests. Among controls a higher number of correct responses in naming, definition and verbal fluency was observed in nouns representing living concepts but differences did not reach statistical significance when we controlled for sociodemographic variables correlated to the tasks. The description of the performance of two patients allowed for recognition of different profiles in the tasks. It is suggested that the patient with SD presented a double-dissociation compared to controls and to the patient with AD. Results are discussed in terms of models of semantic memory organization and neuroanatomical correlates.

Estudo comparativo das associações semânticas de palavras entre adultos jovens e idosos / Comparative study of the semantic word associations between young and elderly adults

Associações de palavras vêm sendo investigadas recentemente, porém há pouco consenso acerca das mudanças nestas associações entre faixas etárias. Este estudo comparou associações semânticas de palavras entre 108 adultos jovens universitários (M = 22,17; DP = 6,04) e 57 idosos (M = 70,89; DP = 6,87). Uma tarefa de associação semântica foi utilizada. A força de associação direta entre estímulos e palavras mais fortemente associadas permaneceu constante entre os grupos. O tamanho do conjunto total e o número de respostas diferentes foram maiores para o grupo de adultos. O índice de diversidade de respostas foi maior para os adultos. Estas diferenças podem ser consideradas na construção de tarefas com estímulos verbais para avaliar memória e linguagem em diferentes faixas etárias.

The number of studies on word associations have increased recently. However, little agreement exists about age differences in relation to these associations. The semantic word associations of 108 adult college students (M = 22.17; SD = 6.04), and 57 elderly (M = 70.89; SD = 6.87) were compared using a semantic word association task. The strength between the stimuli and the strongest word associated were similar for both groups. The number of different words and the total amount of associated words were higher for the adults. Finally, the diversity index of responses was higher for the adults. Future research on memory and language can consider these age differences when developing tasks with verbal stimuli.

Semantic word association: comparative data for Brazilian children and adults

The construction of associated word lists is important for the elaboration of psychological and neuropsychological tasks and experiments. It remains unknown whether differences exist in the semantic associations of words from childhood to adulthood, possibly indicating important lexico-semantic developmental changes that influence neuropsychological assessment. The present study compared semantic word associations in children and adults in terms of forward associative strength and set size. The participants included 247 children from the third grade of elementary school, aged 7 to 11 years (M = 9.17 years, SD = 0.83 years), and 108 adults, aged 16 to 49 years (M = 22.17 years, SD = 6.04 years) from the study of Salles et al. (2008). The task consisted of the participants responding to the first word that came to mind (associate) with a meaning related to each of 87 words presented aloud (target). The children's responses had significantly higher forward associative strength between the target and most frequent associate word and a smaller response diversity index. Although the meaning and total set size did not significantly differ between groups, 40.2% of the targets had a large meaning set size in the children compared with only 10.3% in the adults. Among the most strongly associated pairs, 56.3% were equal between the sample groups. These results suggest that the selection of stimuli for the construction of verbal cognitive tasks should consider specific word association norms for different ages.

A study of dysgraphia of Chinese characters in a patient with semantic dementia / 中华行为医学与脑科学杂志

ObjectiveTo investigate the clinical features of Chinese dysgraphia and then probe into its mechanisms in a patient with semantic dementia(SD).MethodsThe patient with SD finished the writing part of the Aphasia Battery of Chinese (Aphasia Battery of Chinese,ABC) and the Chinese agraphia battery (Chinese agraphia battery,CAB ) in addition to a series of other neuropsychological tests.Results( 1 ) On the Wechsler Adult intelligence scale,the patient performed poorly on information and vocabulary with scores of 6/29 and 8/80,respectively.He spoke out only 11 names totally on the category fluency test within 1 minute,while 25 names or more than were normal.Semantic features test showed he made 37 right answers of 60 questions,with scores of 8/20 on category,7/20 on function and 8/20 on nature features.(2)The writing disorder exhibited Chinese aphasia agraphia with obvious difficulty in forming characters,wrong characters of the same pronunciation or the same form or unrelated errors,and grammatical impairments.Its damage from serious to light occurred in picture writing( 6/40),writing sentences to convey meaning(1/10),dictation(11/40) and automatic writing(35/40).The transcription was relatively preserved (40/40 ). (3)He scored 20 and 19 points on MMSE and MoCA.Executive function was damaged significantly,while recent memory was preserved relatively.ConclusionThe patient with SD shows an impoverished store of general knowledge and poor comprehension of single-word.The nature of SD's dysgraphia presents Chinese aphasia agraphia,undoubtedly due to progressive deterioration in semantic memory.More importantly,its error types and distribution show apparent discrepancy from that of alphabetic script.Presumably because Chinese writing system is logographic in nature and the pathway of comprehension concerning syllable-orthography-morphemes mapping,while alphabetic writing system follows a principle of mapping graphemes on-to phonemes and letters themselves dont stand for any meaning.

Adaptación de la batería de Evaluación de la Memoria Semántica en la Demencia de tipo Alzheimer (EMSDA) a la población de la ciudad de Buenos Aires / Evaluation battery for Semantic Memory Deterioration in Dementia of the Alzheimer type (EMSDA): Item's adjustment to the population of Buenos Aires city

Se llevó a cabo la adaptación de la Batería para la Evaluación de la Memoria Semántica en Demencia de tipo Alzheimer (Peraita, González Labra, Sánchez Bernardos & Galeote Moreno, 2000)¹ para su aplicación en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires (República Argentina). Esta batería permite evaluar mediante pruebas de modalidad visual, verbal y auditiva, el deterioro del conocimiento de seis categorías semánticas de seres vivientes y no vivientes. Ha sido desarrollada para población de habla hispana con la finalidad de evaluar el deterioro semántico en la Demencia de tipo Alzheimer. Su valor radica en que complementa la evaluación neuropsicológica, donde los aspectos de la memoria semántica por lo general están poco representados, otorgándole valor predictivo al posibilitar la detección temprana de determinadas patologías en las que se encuentra afectado ese sistema de la memoria. Se administró la batería a 30 sujetos sin deterioro cognitivo que tenían entre 61 y 88 años de edad y un promedio de 12 años de escolaridad. Los participantes fueron cuidadosamente seleccionados y se excluyeron a quienes pudieran presentar indicadores de deterioro cognitivo. La evaluación de los ítemes se realizó en base a la frecuencia de las respuestas correctas. Se tomó este criterio considerando que se trata de variables categóricas y el tamaño de la muestra. Se estimó la proporción de respuestas correctas en las seis categorías y dominios de seres vivientes y seres no vivientes. Los nuevos ítemes fueron seleccionados respetando la estructura de la batería y considerando su correlación entre las distintas pruebas.

In this work some items of the Evaluation Battery for Semantic Memory Deterioration in Alzheimer's Disease, were adapted to be used in the population of Buenos Aires city - República Argentina (EMSDA -in Spanish-, Peraita, González Labra, Sánchez Bernardos, & Galeote Moreno, 2000). The original battery presents a series of tasks, elaborated with the aim of assessing semantic deterioration and/or conceptual memory in patients with Alzheimer's disease. It allows specifically, assessing some features of the semantic visual and verbal knowledge of six categories concerning to living / animated beings and inanimate objects as well as the attributes that organize them. The evaluation of attributes belonging to the categories assessed by the EMSDA is implemented following a conceptual representation model, according to which attributes can be grouped in at least nine common conceptual components for the living things and inanimate objects categories. This conceptual representation model was constructed on the basis of an empirical approximation to the study of formation and representation of natural categories and objects representation (Peraita, Elosúa, & Linares, 1992). The various conceptual components vary in their frequency, according to the level of generality of the categories (superordinate, basic, or subordinate), category type, age, and education level, verifying this tendency in samples of patients with dementia of the Alzheimer´s type (DAT). The purpose of this paper is to present the items adjustment of some tasks of the EMSDA to the population of Buenos Aires city. The battery was administered to 30 healthy elderly between 61 and 88 years and 12 years average of education. The participants were carefully selected to be included in the sample. To rule out cognitive deterioration we did not include participants whose performance in the Mini Mental State Examination and the Wechsler Memory Scale Revised were one standard deviation bellow the expected scoring for age and educational level. To study the items we evaluated the frequency of answers, considering them more suitable when 75% or more participants gave the expected target. This criterion was chosen considering the variables were categorical, and the sample was formed with healthy elderly participants, i.e. without cognitive deterioration. To this preliminary analysis, it was estimated the proportion of correct answers to the six categories belonging to domains of living beings and in animate objects with the original and new items. We observed that some of them did not reach the 75% of agreement, and consistently, we determined to change the following tasks: Picture Naming, Spoken Word / Picture Matching, Sentence Verification, and Semantic Analogies. We selected new items taking into account the structure of the original version of the battery, and their correlations between the tasks. This new items were administered to 28 participants of the original sample. The means of each task were analyzed by Students distribution obtaining higher scorings with the adapted items (p < .0001). It is important to note that the proportion of expected answers to the living / animate and non living / inanimate objects were similar. The same results were observed to the supra ordinate and basic level of the category. However, to study the reliability of these results it would be necessary to explore the items in a larger sample. These preliminary results indicate that the new items can be considered an appropriate adjustment to our social culture context and to determine semantics impairments. This is considered a useful tool for the neuropsychological assessment to investigate the category specific deficits and other cognitive processes.

Neural correlates of lexical-semantic memory: a voxel-based morphometry study in mild AD, aMCI and normal aging / Correlatos neurais da memória lexical-semântica: um estudo de morfometria baseada em voxel na doença de Alzheimer, comprometimento cognitivo leve amnéstico e envelhecimento normal

Neuroanatomical correlations of naming and lexical-semantic memory are not yet fully understood. The most influential approaches share the view that semantic representations reflect the manner in which information has been acquired through perception and action, and that each brain area processes different modalities of semantic representations. Despite these anatomical differences in semantic processing, generalization across different features that have similar semantic significance is one of the main characteristics of human cognition. Methods: We evaluated the brain regions related to naming, and to the semantic generalization, of visually presented drawings of objects from the Boston Naming Test (BNT), which comprises different categories, such as animals, vegetables, tools, food, and furniture. In order to create a model of lesion method, a sample of 48 subjects presenting with a continuous decline both in cognitive functions, including naming skills, and in grey matter density (GMD) was compared to normal young adults with normal aging, amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) and mild Alzheimers disease (AD). Semantic errors on the BNT, as well as naming performance, were correlated with whole brain GMD as measured by voxel-based morphometry (VBM). Results: The areas most strongly related to naming and to semantic errors were the medial temporal structures, thalami, superior and inferior temporal gyri, especially their anterior parts, as well as prefrontal cortices (inferior and superior frontal gyri). Conclusion: The possible role of each of these areas in the lexical-semantic networks was discussed, along with their contribution to the models of semantic memory organization.

As correlações neuroanatômicas de nomeação e memória lexical-semântica não são totalmente entendidas. As abordagens mais influentes compartilham a idéia de que representações refletem a maneira na qual a informação foi adquirida por meio da percepção e ação e que cada área do cérebro processa diferentes modalidades de representações semânticas. Apesar destas diferenças anatômicas no processamento semântico, a generalização de diferentes aspectos que tem significância semântica análoga é uma das principais características da cognição humana. Métodos: Nós avaliamos as regiões cerebrais relacionadas à nomeação e à generalização semântica de desenhos de objetos visualmente apresentados do Teste de Nomeação de Boston (TNB), que compreende diferentes categorias, como animais, vegetais, utensílios, comida e móveis. Para criar um modelo de método de lesão, nós investigamos uma amostra de 48 pessoas que demonstraram um declínio contínuo em funções cognitivas, incluindo habilidades de nomeação e em densidade de substância cinzenta (DSC) em relação a adultos jovens: envelhecimento normal, comprometimento cognitivo leve amnéstico (CCLa) e doença de Alzheimer (DA). Nós correlacionamos seus erros semânticos no TNB, assim como seus desempenhos de nomeação, com a DSC de todo o cérebro que foi medido por morfometria baseada em vóxel (MBV). Resultados: As áreas que mais se relacionaram à nomeação e aos erros semânticos foram as estruturas mediais temporais, tálamo, giro temporal superior e inferior, especialmente em suas partes anteriores e os córtices pré-frontais (giro frontal inferior e superior). Conclusão: Discutimos o provável papel de cada uma dessas áreas na rede lexical-semântica e sua contribuição para os modelos de organização semântica.

Un caso de demencia frontotemporal en su variante lingüística fluente / A case of frontotemporal dementia in fluent linguistic variant

La dificultad para encontrar las palabras en una conversación y expresar lo que se piensa, así como la pérdida del conocimiento en la escritura de las palabras y su significado en presencia de un habla fluida; se evidencia en este estudio de caso; en una mujer de 62 años, con estudios en comercio y secretariado bilingüe, quien previamente a sus dificultades, se desempeñó como secretaria de alta gerencia con sobresalientes habilidades lingüísticas y en su escritura tipo palmer. Ha presentado una progresión gradual de sus déficits, evolucionando hacia un perfil de deterioro global cognoscitivo, específicamente de sus habilidades del lenguaje, déficit de memoria explicita verbal y semántica, alteración en el cálculo, disortografía, agrafia y disfunción ejecutiva, con parcial limitación para desempeñarse funcionalmente en las actividades de la vida diaria. Con la presentación de este caso, se encuentra un cuadro clínico inicial de afectación del sistema semántico y de la representación mental de las palabras, siendo congruente con una demencia semántica. Se presenta el papel fundamental de la evaluación neuropsicológica y la elaboración de la historia clínica, para efectuar un diagnóstico clínico diferencial entre las demencias degenerativas primarias como la enfermedad de Alzheimer y las variantes de las demencias frontotemporales.

The difficulty of finding words in a conversation and express what we think, and unconsciousness in the writing of words and their meaning in the presence of fluent speech, is evident in this study case, a woman of 62 years, with studies in business and bilingual secretary, who prior to his difficulties, she served as secretary of senior management with outstanding language skills and writing Palm OS. He has presented a gradual progression of their deficits, evolving towards a profile of global cognitive impairment, specifically their language skills, verbal explicit memory deficit and semantic change in the calculation, dysorthography, agraphia and executive dysfunction, with partial limitation to perform functionally in activities of daily living. By presenting this case, is a clinical initial involvement of the semantic system and the mental representation of words, being consistent with a semantic dementia. We report the role of neuropsychological assessment and the development of clinical history, to conduct a clinical differential diagnosis between primary degenerative dementia's such as Alzheimer's disease and variants of frontotemporal dementia.

Herramientas informáticas para la representación del conocimiento / Software tools for knowledge representation

La Psicología Cognitiva plantea en el modelo general de la memoria tres tipos de almacenamiento de la información: Memoria Sensorial (MS), Memoria de Corto Plazo (MCP), y Memoria de Largo Plazo (MLP). En la MLP se almacena información de modo permanente, su capacidad es extremadamente grande y conserva la información de modo indefinido. Uno de los subsistemas de la MLP es la Memoria declarativa o conceptual que está compuesta a su vez, por una memoria semántica y una memoria episódica. La organización del conocimiento en la memoria semántica humana tiene una estructura reticular, es decir los conocimiento se representan mediante redes semánticas, a través de representaciones proposicionales. Estas son unidades semánticas que articulan un concepto (nodo 1) con otro concepto (nodo 2) unidos por medio de una relación significativa. El modo en que la información se aprende (fase de adquisición) es importante, tanto para la organización del conocimiento en la memoria como para la fase de recuperación. El mejor modo de aprender es integrar la nueva información en el formato en que la memoria opera para recuperarla/recordarla, es decir en el formato de redes semánticas y mapas conceptuales. En el presente artículo se presenta un software cognitivo: Knowledge Master que emula la forma de la representación del conocimiento en la memoria semántica por medio de la creación de mapas conceptuales y redes semánticas. Se ilustra su aplicación mediante la visualización de redes semánticas sobre conceptos desarrollados en el propio artículo.

Cognitive Psychology proposes three types of information storage for the general pattern of memory: Sensory Memory (SM), Short Term Memory (STM), and Long Term Memory (LTM). In the LTM, information is stored on a permanent basis, its capacity isextremely large and it keeps information indefinitely. One of the sub-systems of LTM is the declarative or conceptual memory which is composed in turn by a semantic memory as well as by an episodic one. The organization of knowledge in the semantic human memory has a reticular structure,which means that knowledge is represented by semantic nets, through propositional representations. These are semantic units which articulate a concept (node 1) with another concept (node 2) joined by means of a significant relation. The way in which information is learned (acquisition phase) is important, for theorganization of knowledge in the memory as much as for the retrieval phase. The best way to learn is to integrate the new information in the format in which memory operatesto retrieve/recall, that is to say in the format of semantic nets and conceptual maps. In the present article a specimen of cognitive software is presented: Knowledge Master, which follows the outline of representation of knowledge in the semantic memory by meansof the generation of conceptual maps and semantic nets. Its application is exemplified by visualization of semantic nets regarding concepts developed in this same article.