La teoría del conflicto sociocognitivo del desarrollo: Una mirada retrospectiva a partir de investigaciones propias / The theory of socio-cognitive conflict of development: A retrospective approach from our own research

Resumen La teoría del conflicto sociocognitivo del desarrollo cognitivo emerge en la psicología europea en la década de los 70, sobre todo a partir de investigaciones de la llamada Escuela de Psicología Social de Ginebra, que alcanzó notable difusión en las décadas siguientes. Representa una postura neopiagetiana crítica que pone el acento en el papel determinante de la interacción sociocognitiva entre iguales (y más específicamente de la confrontación de puntos de vista distintos) en el desarrollo de la inteligencia. En este artículo se analiza la especificidad del constructo que perimitirá determinar con claridad los elementos teóricos que lo definen y analizar las confusiones y malos entendidos a que dio lugar la notable difusión del paradigma en la psicología y la educación. En una segunda parte se reportan diversas ilustraciones experimentales sobre la temática, fruto de la labor de un equipo compacto de investigadores del IRICE (CONICET). Se trata de una selección en torno a tres ejes de extensión del paradigma: el conflicto como promotor del desarrollo de la operacionalidad formal, el microanálisis de los tipos y modalidades de conflicto sociocognitivo, y el papel de este en el aprendizaje de conocimientos y el cambio conceptual. Estas ilustraciones son solo un ejemplo de la vitalidad que el paradigma generó en el seno de este equipo de trabajo, y marcan una evolución que también se registra en el contexto científico global. El artículo también hace referencia a estos aportes, aunque el acento se pone en las investigaciones propias, entendido como una muestra de construcción colaborativa.

Abstract The theory of socio-cognitive conflict emerges in European Psychology in the 1970s, particularly from the research of the social psychology school of Geneve, that had a strong diffusion in the following years. This theory represents a neo-piagetian critical view of Piaget's theory of cognitive development, in the sense that the attention is focused on the role of peer socio-cognitive interaction (specifically in the social confrontations of different points of view) enhancing cognitive growth. The value of the socio-cognitive conflict promoting cognitive development lies in the decentration effect that it produces. According to this view, disturbance resulting from socio-cognitive conflicts gives way to a superior state of equilibrium. The first part of the article focuses on the theoretical and methodological analysis of the concept. In that way, two periods are distinguished in the evolution of the paradigm attending the inclusion of the communicational analysis of the verbal exchange between subjects. Also, this analysis refers to many confusions and misunderstandings in the larger application of the paradigm to psychology and education. The aim of the second part is to present some experimental illustrations produced by the IRICE (CONICET) research team's work. These illustrations concern three conceptual axes: the application of the paradigm to the development of the formal-logical intelligence, the microanalysis of modalities and types of socio-cognitive conflict, and the extended application of the paradigm to the knowledge learning and conceptual change. The research reported in the first axis concerns the comparison of two experimental conditions: collaborative (dyads) and individual problem solving task (problems of Raven's test), in a sample of 12-13 year old students. The comparison concerns to the performances both in the experimental treatment and in the individual post-test of equivalent problems applied to all participants. Results show, in both cases, the superiority of the collective condition. The second axis focuses on some studies concerning the modalities and types of socio-cognitive conflicts. Particularly, a system of categories for the analysis of the social behavior of children of different ages (4, 8 and 12 years old) in a block construction task (to build a house) is reported. This system differentiates many kinds of interactional behavior: dissociation, dominance-submission (both lower social coordination), cooperation (implicit and explicit) and collaboration (these three are modalities of higher social coordination). The third axis examines some illustrations referring to the extension of paradigm to the epistemic learning. After some references to the difficulty of this extension to the educational settings, two studies are reported. The first one concerns an experimental comparison between a collaborative learning condition (dyads) and an individual learning condition in university students of Psychology and Physics. Also, two kinds of collaborative learning are considered, one that assures alternating of participation, the incentive of argumentation and the reciprocal evaluation (in other words, the promotion of the socio-cognitive conflict), and one that is carried out without any intervention (spontaneous collaborative learning). Results show the superiority of the promoting socio-cognitive conflict condition upon the others, both in a written production and in individual learning post-tests. In a second research the comparison is between three instructional modalities to teach an epistemic topic: expositive, participative (with teacher's scaffolding) and collaborative (only peers), in students of the first grade of secondary education (13 years old), in samples taken from two schools. Results for individual learning show that there are not great differences between the three modalities when the initial level (pre-test) of cognitive competence is high, but not if the cognitive level is low; here the collaborative condition (without scaffolding) has many difficulties. Finally, the article presents some general conclusions specifically concerning the socio-cognitive conflict.

New challenges for social psychology in Brazil / Novos desafios para a psicologia social no Brasil

In this paper we analysed the variety of contemporary social psychological approaches in Brazil as part of a network and of a complex common scientific system. They mutually influence each other in different ways, according to intricate patterns of approach and avoidance, of confirming agreements in various ways and, of course, also accentuating disagreements. The paper suggests that such intervention could further a mutual discussion on the role that social psychologists could play or not in the process of societal change that characterizes the Brazilian society, and on how they eventually should or should not intervene in this change. In order to dynamize even more the social psychology community in Brazil, the idea of Summer Schools could be recommended.

Neste artigo analisamos a variedade das abordagens contemporâneas da psicologia social no Brasil como parte de uma rede e de um complexo sistema científico comum. Eles se influenciam mutuamente de diferentes maneiras, de acordo com intrincados padrões de aproximação e esquiva, confirmando acordos de vários tipos e, é claro, também acentuando as divergências. O artigo sugere que tal simpósio poderia promover uma discussão sobre o papel dos psicólogos sociais no processo de mudança social que caracteriza a sociedade brasileira e, eventualmente, como eles poderiam intervir nesta mudança. A fim de dinamizar ainda mais a comunidade da Psicologia Social no Brasil, a idéia de Escolas de Verão poderia ser recomendada.

El conflicto sociocognitivo como instrumento de aprendizaje en contextos colaborativos / The sociocognitive conflict as a learning tool in collaborative contexts

El conflicto sociocognitivo (CSC) ha sido tradicionalmente estudiado por medio de diseños experimentales de investigación como promotor del desarrollo en niños pequeños. En la actualidad, existe una línea de investigación que continúa esta orientación llevando el concepto al contexto del aprendizaje formal, dando lugar a diseños más variados. Sin embargo, muy pocas investigaciones hacen del CSC el eje de sus trabajos. El estudio que se informa buscó incentivar en díadas de estudiantes universitarios el CSC en el aprendizaje colaborativo de conceptos. Con el objetivo de evaluar las producciones escritas que los alumnos realizaban durante el aprendizaje y el efecto de aprendizaje logrado, se constituyeron tres grupos: uno experimental, formado por díadas colaborativas que fueron intervenidas por el investigador y dos grupos control (uno constituido por díadas que también trabajaron colaborativamente pero sin intervención y otro, por sujetos que trabajaron solos y que tampoco fueron intervenidos). La muestra estuvo constituida por 120 sujetos, 60 alumnos de ciencias exactas (Física) y 60 alumnos de ciencias sociales (Psicología). Todos ellos eran estudiantes de primer año. Se elaboraron cuestionarios y textos y se trabajó con un diseño de tipo experimental ‘pre-test individual / intervención sobre la colaboración sociocognitiva / pos-test individual’, estando el incentivo del CSC a cargo de un investigador que garantizaba la simetría de la participación, la evaluación mutua y la explicitación de las diferencias cognitivas. Los resultados muestran que el incentivo del CSC es altamente eficaz en relación a las dos variables dependientes estudiadas: el aprendizaje logrado y la producción escrita; un efecto no esperado fue la mayor homogeneidad de los aprendizajes en las díadas intervenidas.

Socio-cognitive conflict (SCC) has been defined as the exchange of different points of view when two or more people are working in a task together. It is cognitive because the points of view are intellectually supported and social because it takes place during an interaction. The concept of SCC was developed in the Geneva School of Educational Social Psychology and has been traditionally studied as an important factor in children development. These original studies were made using an experimental methodology, with samples of children between 6 and 7 years old. The basic learning tasks evaluated were piagetian tasks of conservation, for example, with liquids, length, quantity, etc. Nowadays, there is a new research field which takes this approach to study the SCC concept in formal learning contexts. This gave place to more varied designs. However, not many designs take SCC as their central aspect. The present study focuses on developing the SCC in pairs of university students using a pretest / post test experimental design. The collaborative learning environment is particularly critical for SCC to take place. This scenario is appropriate for the development of SCC because when pairs are working together sharing the same goal, the interaction increases. In this study the intervention focused on three signs of SCC: symmetry, peer evaluation and the cognitive differences between students. Researchers regulated a ‘symmetrical’ participation encouraging both students to participate in a similar amount of times and tasks. ‘Peer evaluation’ takes place when both students express their agreement or disagreement with the other one’s speech. Researchers also asked students to express their disagreements even if they were shown as non-verbal expressions to increase the cognitive differences between them. In other words, the intervention was not focused on teaching concepts (as professors usually do in their classes); the goal was to guarantee the interaction between the students themselves. In order to evaluate the effect of the intervention on learning and on the interaction processes, three groups of students were constituted. One of them was the experimental group which was constituted by pairs who received the intervention of a researcher. The other two groups were control groups: one of them was integrated by pairs of students who worked independently, and the other one, by participants who worked alone. The sample had 120 participants, 60 students of an exact science career and 60 of a social science career. All students were in the first year of university. Post test evaluations show that encouraging SCC is effective in academic learning. In the experimental group there was more symmetry in participation and homogeneity in the learning process. In addition the written productions in this group were more complete, coherent, and logically structured than the control groups’ productions. Educational implications for university level are discussed. These kinds of results are important because they could be used as an instrument for the classroom organization. It is also important as an example to consider ways to develop (especially with the university students), skills like dialogue, mutual understanding, team work, cognitive explanation, peer evaluation, self-evaluation, and respect for peers’ points of view. All these skills can be developed with teachers who are interested in increasing SCC in collaborative learning environments.

La solución de problemas cognitivos en estudiantes de psicología / Cognitive problem-solving in psychology students / Solução de problemas cognitivos em estudantes psicologia

En este trabajo se analiza la solución de problemas en estudiantes de psicología, en aspectos cognitivos y sociocognitivos. El objetivo es analizar el método de formación de dichos estudiantes en procesos de solución de problemas, el cual se realiza mediante el desarrollo de tres tareas cognitivas: pensamiento productivo (creativo), estrategias heurísticas en juego y entretenimientos matemáticos, y situación estructurante en conflictos sociocognitivos. Las bases teóricas son la psicología histórico-cultural, la ciencia cognitiva computacional y la psicología social cognitiva. El trabajo comprende tres etapas: pretest, sesiones de intervención (situación experimental) y postest. En el pretest - postest se evalúan los estados inicial y final. En las sesiones de intervención se aplican, a saber: el método de la mediación instrumental (instrumentos materiales, semióticos y otros sujetos); el procedimiento heurístico "análisis-medios-fines"; las conceptualizaciones sobre conflicto estructurante o creativo de una actividad cognitiva, y la zona de desarrollo próximo. Los resultados de la investigación se presentan en las llamadas Tablas de Contingencia, en donde se observan la actividad, el desarrollo y el avance de los estudiantes en las tareas cognitivas.

This paper analyzes problem solving in psychology students on cognitive and social-cognitive aspects. The objective is to examine the method whereby these students are educated in problem-solving processes through the development of three cognitive tasks: productive thinking (creative), heuristic strategies in mathematical games and entertainment, and structuring situation in socio-cognitive conflict. The theoretical foundations are cultural-historical psychology, cognitive computational science and cognitive social psychology. The work comprises three stages: pre-test, intervention sessions (experimental condition) and post-test. In the pre-test - post-test the initial and final states are assessed. The intervention sessions involve, namely, the method of instrumental mediation (material tools, semiotic instruments and other subjects), the heuristic procedure "means-end-analysis", the conceptualizations on structuring or creative conflict of a cognitive activity, and the proximal development zone. Research results are presented in the so-called Contingency Tables, where the activity, development and progress of students in cognitive tasks can be observed.

Neste artigo se analisa a solução de problemas cognitivos e sócio-cognitivos nos alunos de psicologia. O objetivo é analisar o método de formação desses alunos nos processos de resolução de problemas, através do desenvolvimento de três tarefas cognitivas: pensamento produtivo (criativo), estratégias heurísticas em jogos e entretenimentos matemáticos, e situação na estruturação de conflitos sócio-cognitivos. Os fundamentos teóricos são a psicologia histórico-cultural, a ciência cognitiva de computação e a psicologia social cognitiva. O trabalho compreende três etapas: pré-teste, sessões de intervenção (condição experimental) e pós-teste. No estado inicial e no final se avaliam na primeira e na terceira etapas. As sessões de intervenção utilizam o método de mediação instrumental (instrumentos materiais, semióticos e outros sujetos), o procedimento heurístico de "análise meios-fins", as conceituações de conflito estruturante o criativo de uma atividade cognitiva, e a zona de desenvolvimento proximal. Os resultados da pesquisa são apresentados nas tabelas de contingência, onde se observam a atividade, o desenvolvimento e o progresso dos alunos em tarefas cognitivas.

Avaliando a dominância e a argumentação em aprendizagem por interação / Assessing the dominance and the argumentation in interactionlearning

O objetivo desta pesquisa foi estudar como se manifesta a dominância-complacência em duplas, quando submetidas a um processo de intervenção por conflito sócio-cognitivo em interações continuadas. Participaram da intervenção 32 sujeitos pré-escolares, não-operatórios em conservação de comprimento. Realizaram-se três sessões experimentais de conservação de comprimento por dupla, cada uma delas contendo seis situações de conflito. Os dados sugeriram que as dominância e complacência puras são bem menos freqüentes em situações de interação continuada, do que foram encontradas na literatura. Analisando as condutas das duplas observaram-se quatro tipos de comportamento: complacência, com tendência à complacência, com tendência à dominância e dominância. A dominância não pareceu ter se dado em razão da utilização de argumentos operatórios.

The aim of the research was to study how the peers’ dominance-submission occurred in a sociocognitive conflict intervention during continuous interactions. Thirty two non-operational preschoolers in length conservation took part in a length conservation experiment. Three sessions were realized each one with six conflict situations. The data suggested that the pure dominance and submission areless frequent in continuous interaction situations than suggested in literature. Analyzing the peer’s procedure, four types of behavior were observed: the submission, those with submission tendency, those with dominance tendency and the dominance. The dominance did not seem to have occurred because of the use of operative justifications.