Monitoring of Air and Water Bacterial Load in the Operation Theatres and Intensive Care Units of Selected Hospitals in Dhaka city: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background: Hospital milieu monitoring is an essential component for controlling healthcare associated infections (HCAIs) as it serves as the reservoir for pathogenic microbes. Aim of this study was to identify the bacterial load in Intensive care units (ICU) and Operation theaters (OT) air and water sources of selected tertiary care hospitals. Material & Methods: The study was organized in Microbiology department, BIRDEM General Hospital. A sum total 28 air samples & 6 water samples were collected from three selected hospitals and those were processed according to the set of protocols. Results: From air sampling, highest load of bacteria was found 480 CFU/dm²/hr in Hospital C ICU, 38.40 ± 9.99 CFU/dm²/hr in pre-OT samples & 218.2±43.35 CFU/dm²/hr in intra OT samples of Hospital C. From water sampling, unacceptable level of coliforms was found in all three hospitals. Among the non-pathogens, 24% – 37% Micrococcus spp. (normal flora) and 2% -18% Bacillus spp. (contaminants) were found in the OTs. Whereas pathogens found were Acinetobacter spp. (20.7%) followed by Pseudomonas spp. (19.4%), Klebsiella spp. (12.1%) & S. aureus (9.2%) in the ICUs. Conclusion: It could be deduced from the study that environmental sources such as air and water contaminations with multidrug resistant pathogens are an ultimate risk factor for all related to the healthcare settings, specially the indoor patients.

Factores de riesgo para infecciones asociadas al cuidado de la salud en recién nacidos sometidos a cirugía en una unidad de cuidados intensivos neonatales / Risk factors for healthcare-associated infections in newborns after surgery in a neonatal intensive care unit

Resumen Antecedentes: Las infecciones asociadas a la atención de la salud (IAAS) son causa frecuente de morbilidad y mortalidad. Objetivo: Identificar los factores de riesgo para el desarrollo de IAAS en recién nacidos (RN) sometidos a cirugía. Material y métodos: Estudio de casos y controles anidado en una cohorte. Los casos fueron RN sometidos a cirugía, con IAAS y los controles, RN sometidos a cirugía sin IAAS. Se registraron datos perinatales, uso de profilaxis antimicrobiana, de catéter venoso central (CVC), ventilación mecánica, nutrición parenteral y sondas; edad y peso al momento de la cirugía, tipo de cirugía, clasificación de la herida quirúrgica, duración de la cirugía, número de procedimientos quirúrgicos y tipo de infección. Se realizó análisis univariado y multivariado. Resultados: Se incluyeron 71 casos y 142 controles. Las IAAS más frecuentes fueron las infecciones sanguíneas (36.6 %); los principales microorganismos aislados en hemocultivos fueron cocos grampositivos. Los factores de riesgo asociados a IAAS en el análisis multivariado fueron duración del CVC > 8 días (RMa = 17.2), ≥ 2 intervenciones quirúrgicas (RMa = 16.5) y cirugía abdominal (RMa = 2.6). Conclusiones: Los RN sometidos a cirugía, principalmente aquellos con factores de riesgo, requieren vigilancia estrecha durante el posoperatorio. El CVC debe ser retirado tan pronto sea posible.

Abstract Background: Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) are a common cause of morbidity and mortality. Objective: To identify the risk factors for the development of HAIs in newborns (NBs) undergoing surgery. Material and methods: Nested case-control study. Cases were NBs undergoing surgery with HAIs, while controls were NBs undergoing surgery with no HAIs. Perinatal data, use of antimicrobial prophylaxis, use of central venous catheter (CVC), mechanical ventilation, parenteral nutrition, and other medical devices were recorded, as well as age and weight at the time of surgery, type of surgery, surgical wound classification, duration of surgery, number of surgical procedures, and type of infection. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed. Results: Seventy-one cases and 142 controls were included. The most frequent HAI was bloodstream infection (36.6%); the main microorganisms isolated in blood cultures were gram-positive cocci. The risk factors associated with HAIs in the multivariate analysis were CVC duration > 8 days (aOR = 17.2), ≥ 2 surgical interventions (aOR = 16.5) and abdominal surgery (aOR = 2.6). Conclusions: NBs undergoing surgery, mainly those with risk factors, require close monitoring during the postoperative period. CVC should be withdrawn as soon as possible.

Device-associated infections in neonatal care units in a middle-income country, 2016-2018

Abstract Objective: Describe the device-associated infections in the NICUs in Cali - Colombia, a middle-income country, between August 2016 to December 2018. Methods: Observational cross-sectional study evaluating reports of device-associated infections in 10 NICUs in Cali, Colombia, between August 2016 and December 2018. Socio-demographic and microbiological data were obtained from the National Public Health surveillance system, through a specialized notification sheet. The relationship of device-associated infections with several outcomes including birth weight, microorganisms, and mortality was evaluated using OR Cl95%, using the logistic regression model. Data processing was performed using the statistical program STATA 16. Results: 226 device-associated infections were reported. The rate of infection with central line-associated bloodstream infections was 2.62 per 1000 days of device use and 2.32 per 1000 days for ventilator-associated pneumonia. This was higher in neonates under 1000 g; 4.59 and 4.10, respectively. 43.4% of the infections were due to gram-negative bacteria and 42.3% were due to gram-positive bacteria. Time from hospitalization to diagnosis of all device-associated infections had a median of 14 days. When compared by weight, infants with a weight lower than 1000 g had a greater chance of death (OR 3.61; 95% CI 1.53-8.49, p = 0.03). Infection by gram-negative bacteria was associated with a greater chance of dying (OR 3.06 CI 95 1.33-7.06, p = 0.008). Conclusions: These results highlight the need to maintain epidemiological surveillance processes in neonatal intensive care units, especially when medical devices are used.

Infecciones asociadas a la asistencia sanitaria en el servicio de Misceláneas

Introducción: las infecciones asociadas a la asistencia sanitaria son consideradas un gran problema de salud a nivel mundial y tienen gran repercusión económica y social. Las mismas aparecen después de 48 horas de estadía hospitalaria. Son causadas por gran variedad de hongos, bacterias y virus adquiridos durante la asistencia a la salud en el tratamiento de otras afecciones. Objetivo: caracterizar las infecciones asociadas a la asistencia sanitaria en el servicio de Misceláneas del Hospital Provincial Pediátrico Docente "Gral Milanés". Métodos: se realizó un estudio descriptivo, observacional y retrospectivo, en el año 2019. El universo estuvo constituido por 53 pacientes a los que se les diagnóstico infección asociada a la asistencia sanitaria y la muestra quedó representada por 44 pacientes y que cumplieran con los criterios de inclusión y exclusión. Resultados: el sexo masculino 61.4 %, los menores de un año 77.3 %, el rango de 4-6 días 34.1%, la fiebre 41.5%, las bacteriemias 43.2% y las cefalosporinas de 4ta generación fueron los resultados más significativos. Conclusiones: los menores de un año y el sexo masculino fueron los más representados en el estudio, la fiebre fue la manifestación clínica más observada, el rango de estadía hospitalaria de 4-6 días fue el de mayor incidencia, las bacteriemias primarias fueron las predominantes y las cefalosporinas de 4ta generación fue la terapéutica antimicrobiana más utilizada.

Introduction: healthcare-associated infections are considered a major health problem worldwide and have great economic and social repercussions. They appear after 48 hours of hospital stay. They are caused by a wide variety of fungi, bacteria and viruses acquired during health care in the treatment of other conditions. Objective: to characterize infections associated with health care in the Miscellaneous Service of the "Gral Milanés" Teaching Pediatric Provincial Hospital. Methods: a descriptive, observational and retrospective study was conducted in 2019. The universe consisted of 53 patients who were diagnosed with healthcare-associated infection and the sample was represented by 44 patients who met the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Results: male sex 61.4%, children under one year 77.3%, the range of 4-6 days 34.1%, fever 41.5%, bacteremia 43.2% and cephalosporins of 4th generation were the most significant results. Conclusions: children under one year of age and males were the most represented in the study, fever was the most observed clinical manifestation, the range of hospital stay of 4-6 days was the one with the highest incidence, primary bacteremia was the predominant and 4th generation cephalosporins was the most used antimicrobial therapeutic.

Introdução: as infecções relacionadas à assistência à saúde são consideradas um importante problema de saúde em todo o mundo e têm grande repercussão econômica e social. Aparecem após 48 horas de internação. Eles são causados por uma grande variedade de fungos, bactérias e vírus adquiridos durante os cuidados de saúde no tratamento de outras condições. Objetivo: caracterizar as infecções associadas à assistência à saúde no Serviço de Diversos do Hospital Provincial Pediátrico Universitário "Gral Milanés". Métodos: estudo descritivo, observacional e retrospectivo realizado em 2019. O universo foi composto por 53 pacientes com diagnóstico de infecção relacionada à assistência à saúde e a amostra foi representada por 44 pacientes que preencheram os critérios de inclusão e exclusão. Resultados: sexo masculino 61,4%, crianças menores de um ano 77,3%, variação de 4-6 dias 34,1%, febre 41,5%, bacteremia 43,2% e cefalosporinas de 4ª geração foram os resultados mais significativos. Conclusões: crianças menores de um ano e do sexo masculino foram as mais representadas no estudo, febre foi a manifestação clínica mais observada, a faixa de internação de 4-6 dias foi a de maior incidência, bacteremia primária foi a predominante e cefalosporinas de 4ª geração foi a terapêutica antimicrobiana mais utilizada.

Caracterización de especies de Acinetobacter causantes de infecciones en hospitales cubanos / Characterization of Acinetobacter species, contributors to infections in Cuban hospitals

Introducción: Acinetobacter spp. constituye un patógeno relevante en Cuba. El complejo Acinetobacter baumannii-calcoaceticus es la principal especie causante de infecciones graves. Se aísla frecuentemente en las unidades de cuidados intensivos (UCI) y exhibe una elevada resistencia a la mayoría de los antibióticos disponibles, incluidos los carbapenémicos. Objetivo: Caracterizar los aislados de Acinetobacter obtenidos de pacientes ingresados en hospitales cubanos. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio retrospectivo en el Laboratorio de Infecciones Asociadas a la Asistencia Sanitaria del Instituto de Medicina Tropical Pedro Kourí, que incluyó 278 aislados conservados durante junio de 2011 a julio de 2012, pertenecientes a la colección de cultivos del laboratorio y procedentes de 21 hospitales, distribuidos en nueve provincias. Las especies se identificaron mediante pruebas bioquímicas y se determinó la susceptibilidad a 18 antibióticos por el método de Bauer-Kirby, excepto la colistina, cuya determinación se realizó por el E-test (método epsilométrico). Las variables analizadas fueron: especie de Acinetobacter, tipo de muestra, tipo de servicio hospitalario, susceptibilidad a los antimicrobianos y categorización de la multirresistencia a los antimicrobianos. Resultados: Predominó el complejo Acinetobacter baumannii-calcoaceticus, fundamentalmente en muestras de secreción endotraqueal y sangre. Las UCI y unidades de quemados fueron los servicios hospitalarios más afectados. Se detectaron porcentajes elevados de resistencia para los betalactámicos (76-94 por ciento), aminoglucósidos (66-80 por ciento) y fluoroquinolonas (60-89 por ciento). La tetraciclina, doxiciclina y colistina resultaron los antimicrobianos más activos. El 73,5 por ciento de los aislados fueron multidrogorresistentes, el 26,1 por ciento extremodrogorresistentes y un aislado resultó pandrogorresistente (0,4 por ciento). Conclusiones: Las infecciones provocadas por Acinetobacter spp. constituyen un grave problema de salud en los hospitales cubanos. Los aislados se caracterizaron por una elevada resistencia a los antibióticos disponibles y revelan la necesidad del monitoreo continuo de la susceptibilidad a los antimicrobianos, además del reforzamiento de las medidas de control, principalmente en las UCI(AU)

Introduction: Acinetobacter spp. is a relevant pathogen in Cuba. The Acinetobacter baumannii-calcoaceticus complex is the main cause of severe infections. It is frequently isolated in intensive care units (ICU) and exhibits high resistance to most available antibiotics, including carbapenems. Objective: To characterize the Acinetobacter isolates collected from patients admitted to Cuban hospitals. Methods: A retrospective study was conducted at the Healthcare-Associated Infections Laboratory of "Pedro Kourí" Tropical Medicine Institute. The study included 278 isolates from 21 hospitals located in 9 provinces, stored from June 2011 to July 2012 in the culture collection of the laboratory. Species identification was based on biochemical tests and the susceptibility to 18 antibiotics was determined by the Bauer-Kirby method, except for colistin, for which the E-test (epsilometric method) was used. The variables under analysis were: Acinetobacter species, type of sample, type of healthcare service, antimicrobial susceptibility, and antimicrobial multi-resistance categorization. Results: Acinetobacter baumannii-calcoaceticus complex prevailed, mainly in endotracheal fluid and blood samples. The ICU and the burn unit were the most affected healthcare services. High resistance percentages were observed to beta-lactams (76-94%), aminoglycosides (66-80%), and fluoroquinolones (60-89%). Tetracycline, doxycycline, and colistin were the most active antimicrobials. Multi-drug-resistance was observed in 73.5% of isolates, extensively-drug-resistance in 26.1%, and pan-drug-resistance in one isolate (0.4%). Conclusions: Infections by Acinetobacter spp. constitute a serious health problem in the Cuban hospitals. High resistance to available antibiotics characterizes the isolates, which evidences the need to constantly monitor antimicrobial susceptibility and to reinforce the control measures, mainly in the ICUs.

Copper-based fabric for healthcare professionals to prevent healthcare-associated infections: A futuristic/dreamed uniform

Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) have a major impact on public health worldwide. Till now, we are relying on hand washing and environmental disinfection, but the compliance rate of hand washing and adequate supply of materials is always a catch. Alongside patients, surfaces and supplies act as reservoirs of microorganisms in healthcare settings. The reduction in organisms may prove to be an effective strategy to decline HAIs. The use of gold and silver in commercial textiles is prohibited because of the high cost rather than having excellent antibacterial and antimicrobial properties, so copper has become the best choice for researchers as it possesses similar properties to gold and silver and has other characteristics such as its durability, corrosion resistance, prestigious appearance, and ability to form complex shapes. It has been found that copper brings down the microbial burden of high-touch surfaces in healthcare settings. The fundamental properties of copper offer a theoretical advantage to regular cleaning, as the effect is continuous rather than episodic. So the use of copper-impregnated textiles in hospital areas whether in form of bed linen or uniforms for health professionals, as well as patients, can be a viable alternative to decline the levels of infection in healthcare settings, and with the discovery of copper-encapsulated hospital beds and fabrics, dividends will likely be paid in improved patient outcomes, lives saved, and healthcare cost saved. The application of copper in fabrics for healthcare professionals will be a sound initiative to prevent HAIs. The fabric may help decline the infection rate and mortality among hospitalized patients.

Effectiveness of educational interventions in improving knowledge and practice regarding infection prevention and control among healthcare workers.

Introduction: Rise of major Healthcare associated infections (HAIs) can be mitigated by inculcating good infection control practices which can only be possible by proper and timely educational training of healthcare workers. Aim: To reinforce infection prevention and control knowledge and practices of nursing staff through proper training program- To conduct the training in multiple sessions, to assess the immediate outcome of training program by conducting Pre and Post test (in written format only) Materials and Methods: This study was done in a tertiary care hospital in Davangere, Karnataka over a period of 2 years. Healthcare workers including 144 nurses and 12 doctors underwent training in four sessions where knowledge on how to identify, audit and conduct surveillance of major healthcare associated infections, management of needlestick injuries were imparted through interactive lectures and video demonstrations followed by hands on hand hygiene, proper use and disposal of personal protective equipments. Pre and Post test were given to know their basal knowledge and effect of our training intervention. Data was collected, analyzed and tabulated. Results: Out of four sessions covering a total of 144 nurses, 84 were trained before the onset of COVID-19 and remaining 60 were trained in the latter half of 2021, when the lockdown was relaxed in our region. The mean total Knowledge score in pre test and post test was 5.93 � 1.336 and 7.95 � 1.040. The mean difference was -2.021 and it was statistically significant by paired test. (p - 0.001). The mean total practice pretest and post test score was 3.57 � 1.48 and 4.56 � 1.114. Paired t test showed significant mean difference between the pretest and post test score. (p - 0.001). Conclusion: Our training intervention was effective in increasing their awareness on proper infection prevention and control practices. Repeated training and retraining of healthcare care workers have to be carried out to prevent and control healthcare associated infections.

Healthcare-associated Infections by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Antimicrobial Resistance in a Public Hospital from Alagoas (Brazil)

ABSTRACT Introduction Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections are common worldwide, affecting mainly hospitalized patients and causing healthcare-associated infections (HAIs), with a high frequency of antibiotic resistance and complicated outcomes. Objective To investigate the P. aeruginosa frequency in HAIs in a medium/high-complexity hospital in Alagoas (Brazil) and the antibiotic susceptibility profiles of the strains. Methods A retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted from January 2013 to December 2014, when P. aeruginosa related-HAIs were evaluated after automated identification (Vitek®2) and documental analysis. Results Seventy-eight samples were positive for P. aeruginosa, with 37 (47.4%) isolates from patients of the general Intensive Care Unit (ICU) and 13 (16.7%) from the surgical unit. Tracheal secretion (25.6%), wound secretions (20.5%) and sputum (18.0%) were the main positive biological samples. Among 68 strains tested, 73.53% showed resistance to aztreonam, while cefepime, ceftriaxone and cefotaxime were not effective for any isolates (all resistant). High resistance to carbapenems imipenem (61.76%) and meropenem (55.88%) was observed, as well as 46 isolates resistant to piperacillin/tazobactam (67.64%); 47 (60.2%) from the general ICU and neonatal ICU were resistant to all antibiotics tested (MDR profile), except for colistin. Conclusion Our results indicated antibiotic-resistant P. aeruginosa highly present in ICU and the therapy with aminoglycosides and colistin as important choices in cases with failure against P. aeruginosa isolates. A constant screening of multidrug-resistant P. aeruginosa is necessary for the control in the hospital environment, evaluating the antibiotic susceptibility to guide the therapeutic choice.

Infecciones del sitio quirúrgico en un hospital de enseñanza. Estudio observacional / Surgical site infections in a teaching hospital. Observacional study

Objetivo: determinar el número de pacientes que desarrollaron una infección postquirúrgica, posibles agentes etiológicos y complicaciones.Métodos : se realizó un estudio retrospectivo observacional que incluye a todos los supervivientes de las cirugías electivas y de emergencia de los servicios de Cirugía I, II y III del Hospital Universitario de Caracas durante el año 2019. Los datos fueron recopilados a través de la revisión de historias médicas. 48 historias cumplieron los criterios de inclusión, en estas se analizaron distintas variables como: días de hospitalización, síntomas, resultados de laboratorio, cultivos microbiológicos y tratamientos. A partir de estas se elaboraron tablas de frecuencia y análisis bivariado (Chi-cuadrado de Pearson) con el programa IBM SPSS Statistics 26.Resultados : la prevalencia de las infecciones postoperatorias fue de 4,69% CI 95% = (2,79-7,16%) en los servicios de Cirugía (I, II y III) del hospital durante el año 2019, la mayoría ocurrieron tras cirugías de emergencia (87,50%) tales como: apendicectomías (45,83%) y colecistectomías (10,41%). Solo al 22,91% de estos pacientes se les realizó cultivo microbiológico donde se encontró:E. coli (10,50%), Enterococcus sp. y Klebsiella pneumoniae (6,24%), Morganella morganii (2,1%) y Streptococcus pneumoniae (2,1%). Conclusión : las infecciones del sitio quirúrgico siguen siendo una de las principales causas de morbi-mortalidad y aumento de la estadía hospitalaria en los servicios de cirugía, son de diversa etiología bacteriana y están mayormente asociadas a cirugías abdominales, de emergencia(AU)

Objective: to determine the number of patients that developed a surgical site infection (SSI), possible etiologic agents and complications.Methods : an observational and retrospective study that includes every patient that underwent and survived a surgical procedure at the general surgery I, II and III services at the University Hospital of Caracas between January and December 2019. The study data were collected through the review of the medical records. 48 medical records that met the inclusion criteria and different variables were analyzed, including: days of hospitalization, symptoms, laboratory results, microbiological cultures and treatments. From those variables, frequency tables and bivariate analysis (Pearson's Chi-Square) were created with the IBM SPSS Statistics 26 program.Results : the SSI prevalence was 4,69% CI 95%= (2,79-7,16%) including the three surgery services (I, II and III) at the University Hospital of Caracas during 2019. Most of these occurred after emergency surgeries (87,50%) among which stand out: appendectomy (45,83%) and cholecystectomies (10,41%). Microbiological cultures were performed only in 22,91% of these patients and the following bacteria were isolated:E. coli (10,50%), Enterococcus sp. plus Klebsiella pneumoniae (6,24%), Morganella morganii (2,1%) and Streptococcus pneumoniae (2,1%). Conclusion : Surgical Site Infection (SSI) continues to be one of the main causes of morbimortality and increased hospital stay in surgical services in the hospital. These infections have a diverse bacterial etiology and are mostly associated with abdominal or emergency surgeries(AU)

Estrategias para fomentar la higiene de manos en la atención ambulatoria / Interventions aimed to improve clinical handwashing in an outpatient setting

Introducción: se realizó un análisis de la evidencia disponible sobre intervenciones orientadas a mejorar la adherencia al lavado de manos, para generar recomendaciones para los centros de atención en salud ambulatoria.Materiales y métodos: se realizó una búsqueda en Pubmed, Embase y Epistemonikos, y en las referencias de guías sobre el tema, seleccionando aquellos estudios no observacionales en que se realizaran intervenciones para aumentar la adherencia al lavado de manos en atención en salud. Se clasificaron las estrategias descritas según tipo de intervención, y se evaluaron según su efectividad en mejorar la adherencia al lavado de manos y el seguimiento en el tiempo.Resultados: se seleccionaron 34 estudios experimentales prospectivos, que se clasificaron en 10 grupos según el tipo de intervención realizada, y se evaluaron según efectividad y seguimiento en una escala del I al VII. 24 de 34 estudios mostraron un aumento estadísticamente significativo de la adherencia al lavado de manos mayor al 15% desde el basal o en comparación al grupo control, correspondiendo en su mayoría a estrategias multimodales y de feedback. Discusión: las intervenciones más efectivas para mejorar la adherencia al lavado de manos fueron las que incluían abordajes multimodales y las que incluían feedback. Se hace urgente generar mayor evidencia sobre esta temática en el contexto de atención ambulatoria.

Introduction: To analyze the available evidence on interventions aimed at improving adherence to handwashing, to generate re-commendations for outpatient health care centers. Methods: A search was made in Pubmed, Embase and Epistemonikos, and in the references of guides on the subject, selecting those non-observational studies in which interventions were carried out to increase adherence to handwashing in health care. The strategies described were classified according to the type of intervention, and evaluated according to their effectiveness in improving adherence to handwashing, and its follow-up time afterward. Results: 34 prospective experimental studies were selected, which were classified into 10 groups according to the type of intervention performed, and were evaluated according to effectiveness and follow-up on a scale from I to VII. 24 of 34 studies showed a statistically significant increase in handwashing adherence greater than 15% from baseline or compared to the control group, corresponding mostly to multimodal and feedback strategies. Discussion: The most effective interventions to improve adherence to handwashing were those that included multimodal approaches and the ones that included feedback. It is urgent to generate more evidence on the subject in the context of ambulatory care.

Infecciones asociadas al cuidado sanitario en pacientes cirróticos ingresados / Healthcare-associated infections in hospitalized cirrhotic patients / Infecções associadas a cuidados de saúde em pacientes cirróticos hospitalizados

RESUMEN Introducción: La cirrosis hepática es una de las enfermedades más frecuentes en nuestro país, y la presencia de infecciones y su descompensación constituyen motivos de ingreso hospitalario en estos pacientes. Objetivo: Identificar las enfermedades asociadas al cuidado sanitario más frecuentes en pacientes cirróticos ingresados. Método: Se realizó un estudio de cohorte en 90 pacientes con diagnóstico de cirrosis hepática, ingresados en el Hospital General Provincial "Carlos Manuel de Céspedes" de provincia Granma, en el período comprendido desde enero de 2017 hasta septiembre de 2020. La población estuvo conformada por la totalidad de pacientes mayores de 18 años y de ambos sexos. Los datos se recogieron de las historias clínicas hospitalarias. En el análisis estadístico se empleó el estadígrafo Chi-cuadrado obtenido a partir de tablas de contingencia, y para medir la fuerza de la misma los riesgos relativos (RR), se utilizó un nivel de significación (valor p) menor de 0,05. Resultados: La mayoría de los pacientes fueron del sexo masculino, descompensados con Child-Pugh (B), el alcohol como la etiología más frecuente de la cirrosis, a los que se les realizaron cuidados sanitarios como la colocación de sonda vesical, abordaje venoso central y periférico, así como intubación endotraqueal. Las principales infecciones asociadas al cuidado sanitario observadas en estos pacientes fueron la flebitis, bacteriemia, la infección del tracto urinario y la neumonía. Conclusiones: Las infecciones asociadas al cuidado sanitario según orden de frecuencia fueron la flebitis, la bacteriemia, la pielonefritis, neumonía y cistitis.

ABSTRACT Introduction: Liver cirrhosis has been confirmed as one of the most common diseases in Cuba. Infection and decompensated cirrhosis constitute the cause of hospitalization. Objective: To identify the most frequent health care-associated diseases in hospitalized cirrhotic patients. Method: A cohort study involving 90 hospitalized patients with cirrhosis was conducted at the Hospital General Provincial "Carlos Manuel de Céspedes" in Granma, from January 2017 through September 2020. The total patients underwent study were over 18 years old and both sex. Data were collected from patients´ hospitalization history. Chi-square test was utilized for statistical analysis and to measure its power (the relative risk), a P-value less than 0.05 was used. Results: Most patients were male, decompensated with Child-Pugh class B. All hospitalized patients who underwent health care such as bladder catheter placement, central and peripheral venous approach, as well as endotracheal intubation, alcohol was considered the major etiological factor cause of cirrhosis. The main healthcare-associated infections observed in these patients were phlebitis, bacteremia, urinary tract infection and pneumonia. Conclusions: The healthcare-associated infections in order of frequency were phlebitis, bacteremia, pyelonephritis, pneumonia and cystitis.

RESUMO Introdução: A cirrose hepática é uma das doenças mais frequentes em nosso país, e a presença de infecções e sua descompensação constituem motivos de internação nesses pacientes. Objetivo: Identificar as doenças associadas aos cuidados de saúde mais frequentes em pacientes cirróticos hospitalizados. Método: Foi realizado um estudo de coorte em 90 pacientes com diagnóstico de cirrose hepática, internados no Hospital Geral Provincial "Carlos Manuel de Céspedes" da província de Granma, no período de janeiro de 2017 a setembro de 2020. A população foi constituída por para todos os pacientes com mais de 18 anos de idade e de ambos os sexos. Os dados foram coletados em prontuários hospitalares. Na análise estatística, foi utilizada a estatística Qui-quadrado obtida em tabelas de contingência e, para medir a força dos riscos relativos (RR), foi utilizado um nível de significância (p-valor) menor que 0,05. Resultados: A maioria dos pacientes era do sexo masculino, descompensados com Child-Pugh (B), sendo o álcool a etiologia mais frequente da cirrose, que realizaram cuidados de saúde como colocação de cateter vesical, abordagem venosa central e periférica, além de intubação endotraqueal. As principais infecções associadas aos cuidados de saúde observadas nestes pacientes foram flebite, bacteremia, infecção do trato urinário e pneumonia. Conclusões: As infecções associadas aos cuidados de saúde em ordem de frequência foram flebite, bacteremia, pielonefrite, pneumonia e cistite.

Infection factors related to nursing procedures in Intensive Care Units: a scoping review / Factores de infección relacionados con los procedimientos de enfermería en la Unidad de Cuidados Intensivos: revisión del alcance / Fatores de infecções relacionados aos procedimentos de enfermagem na Unidade de Terapia Intensiva: scoping review

ABSTRACT Objectives: to identify and map the invasive procedures performed by nursing that can cause Healthcare-Associated Infections in patients in Intensive Care Units. Methods: this is a scoping review carried out in the first half of 2018, based on search for studies in national and international databases, in which 2,209 studies were found, of which 35 constituted the final sample. The data were analyzed and organized by simple descriptive statistics. Results: among the invasive procedures performed by nursing that provide Healthcare-Associated Infections, delayed bladder catheter was indicated in 34 (66.67%) studies, the nasogastric catheter in 10 (19.61%) and the nasoenteral catheter in two (03.92%). Conclusions: in the face of such problems, better nursing planning and guidance for care in these invasive techniques becomes relevant and thus minimizes the incidence of infections.

RESUMEN Objetivo: identificar y mapear los procedimientos invasivos realizados por enfermería que pueden ocasionar Infecciones Relacionadas con la Salud en pacientes en la Unidad de Cuidados Intensivos. Métodos: se trata de una revisión de alcance, realizada en el primer semestre de 2018, con base en la búsqueda de estudios en bases de datos nacionales e internacionales, en la que se encontraron 2.209 estudios, de los cuales 35 constituyeron la muestra final. Los datos fueron analizados y organizados mediante estadística descriptiva simple. Resultados: entre los procedimientos invasivos realizados por enfermería que brindan Infecciones Relacionadas con la Atención de la Salud, se indicó el catéter vesical retardado en 34 (66,67%) estudios, el catéter nasogástrico en 10 (19,61%) y el catéter nasoenteral en dos (03,92%). Conclusiones: ante tales problemas cobra relevancia una mejor planificación y orientación de la enfermería para el cuidado en estas técnicas invasivas, minimizando así la incidencia de infecciones.

RESUMO Objetivos: identificar e mapear os procedimentos invasivos executados pela enfermagem que podem ocasionar Infecções Relacionadas à Assistência em Saúde em pacientes na Unidade de Terapia Intensiva. Métodos: trata-se de uma scoping review, realizada no primeiro semestre de 2018, a partir da busca de estudos em bases de dados nacionais e internacionais, nas quais foram encontrados 2.209 estudos, dos quais 35 constituíram a amostra final. Os dados foram analisados e organizados por estatística descritiva simples. Resultados: dentre os procedimentos invasivos realizados pela enfermagem que propiciam Infecções Relacionadas à Assistência em Saúde, a sonda vesical de demora foi apontada em 34 (66,67%) estudos, a sonda nasogástrica em 10 (19,61%) e a sonda nasoenteral em dois (03,92%). Conclusões: diante de tal problemática, torna-se relevante um melhor planejamento e orientação da enfermagem para o cuidado nessas técnicas invasivas e, assim, minimizar a incidência de infecções.

Active surveillance of carbapenem-resistant Gram-negative healthcare-associated infections in a low-middle-income country city

ABSTRACT Background: Carbapenem-resistance in healthcare-associated infections (HCAIs) is of great concern, and it is urgent to improve surveillance. We aimed to describe and analyze HCAIs trends on Gram-negative antimicrobial susceptibility in a city from a developing country, following the implementation of an active surveillance program. Methods: This is an aggregated study describing data from 24 hospitals with intensive care units, including a trend analysis by Joinpoint regression between January 2012 and December 2017. Results: There were 23,578 pathogens in 39,832 HCAIs, from which 16,225 were Gram-negatives (68.8%). Carbapenem susceptibility was lowest in A. baumannii (15.4-25.9%), K. pneumoniae (51.0-55.9%), and P. aeruginosa (64.9-84.1%) and highest in E. coli (96.5-99.2%). Only K. pneumoniae showed a significant Joinpoint at 95% confidence interval: −10.71% (−18.02; −2.75) from 2012 to 2014, p = 0.02, and 6.54% (−2.00; 15.83) from 2015 to 2017, p = 0.12, which was most influenced by urinary tract infections: −9.98% (−16.02; −3.48) from 2012 to 2014, p = 0.01, and 9.66% (−1.75; 22.39) from 2015 to 2017, p = 0.09. Conclusion: Although we found a significant change toward an improvement in carbapenem susceptibility in K. pneumoniae, resistance is high for most pathogens. These data should encourage health institutions to improve their prevention and control strategies.

Infecciones bacterianas y patógenos relacionados en pacientes cubanos con virus de inmunodeficiencia humana, Instituto de Medicina Tropical Pedro Kourí, 2014-2017 / Bacterial infections and related pathogens in Cuban patients with human immunodeficiency virus,Pedro Kourí Institute of Tropical Medicine, 2014-2017

Introducción: Las enfermedades bacterianas representan una de las causas más importantes de morbilidad y mortalidad en los pacientes infectados con el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH). Ha este suceso se adicionan hoy las infecciones asociadas a los servicios sanitarios, escenario agravado por la aparición de bacterias con multirresistencia, las que impactan negativamente sobre la salud humana. Objetivo: Caracterizar las infecciones bacterianas en pacientes cubanos con el VIH, ingresados en el centro hospitalario del Instituto de Medicina Tropical Pedro Kourí, entre enero de 2014 y diciembre del 2017. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio de corte transversal con componente analítico cuyo universo estuvo constituido por 538 pacientes seropositivos en VIH-1 con diagnóstico de infección bacteriana documentada por aislamiento microbiológico. Resultados: Las infecciones bacterianas a nivel de vías respiratorias en pacientes con VIH y CD4 ≤ 200 cel/mm3 resultaron los eventos más frecuentes. Se demostró la mayor positividad en muestras de hemocultivo y esputos bacteriológicos 40,1 por ciento y 36,1 por ciento respectivamente. El 69,7por ciento de los aislamientos evidenciaron infección asociada a la asistencia sanitaria revelando asociación estadísticamente significativa con factores de riesgo seleccionados (estadías hospitalarias prolongadas y uso de dispositivos), además con la presencia de infección por bacterias gramnegativas y estafilococos coagulasa positivo. Conclusiones: Las infecciones bacterianas son frecuentes en pacientes VIH con inmunodepresión severa y su causa principal son las neumonías. Existe alta incidencia de infección asociada a la asistencia sanitaria, las que muestran asociación estadísticamente significativa con las estadías hospitalarias prolongadas y el uso de dispositivos, también revelan asociación con aislamientos de bacterias gramnegativas y estafilococos coagulasa positivo(AU)

Introduction: Bacterial diseases are one of the most important causes of morbidity and mortality in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). To this event are added nowadays infections associated with health services, a scenario aggravated by the emergence of bacteria with multi-resistance, which negatively impact human health. Objective: Characterize bacterial infections in Cuban HIV patients, admitted to the hospital center of Pedro Kourí Institute of Tropical Medicine between January 2014 and December 2017. Methods: A cross-sectional study with analytical component was conducted consisting of 538 HIV-1 positive patients diagnosed with bacterial infection detected by microbiological isolation. Results: Bacterial infections at the airway level in patients with HIV and CD4≤ 200cel/mm3 were the most common events. The highest positivity was demonstrated in samples of blood culture and bacteriological sputus with 40.1 percent and 36.1 percent, respectively. 69.7 percent of isolations showed healthcare-associated infection revealing statistically significant association with selected risk factors (prolonged hospital stays and devices use), as well as infection with gram-negative bacteria and coagulase-positive staph. Conclusions: Bacterial infections are common in HIV patients with severe immunosuppression and pneumonia is its main cause. There is a high incidence of healthcare-associated infection, which shows statistically significant association with prolonged hospital stays and devices use, also reveal association with isolations of gram-negative bacteria and coagulase-positive staph(AU)

Factores de riesgo para infección del tracto urinario asociado al uso de catéter urinario permanente en pacientes adultos hospitalizados / Risk factors for urinary tract infection associated with the use of urinary catheters in hospitalized adult

Resumen La infección del tracto urinario asociada al catéter urinario permanente (ITU/CUP) es un problema relevante en los centros de salud por su alta frecuencia. Objetivo: Identificar factores de riesgo de ITU en pacientes adultos con CUP. Material y Método: Estudio caso control efectuado entre los años 2010-2016 en el Hospital Militar de Santiago. Se realizó un análisis estadístico univariado y multivariado por medio del modelo de regresión logística binaria, con variables como edad, duración e indicación del dispositivo, algunas comorbilidades y la instalación del dispositivo luego de 15 días hospitalización. Resultado: Se obtuvo un total de 63 casos y 123 controles. Fueron variables predictoras de ITU/CUP la duración del CUP desde el séptimo día en adelante (OR 2,6 IC 1,4-4,9, p = 0,004) y la instalación del CUP con una estadía de hospitalización previa de 15 días y más (OR 7,8 IC 2,920,9 p = 0,000). No se encontró asociación con la edad mayor de 80 años, comorbilidades como diabetes y vejiga neurogénica e indicación de instalación. Conclusiones: Los resultados permiten focalizar las intervenciones, evaluando la necesidad real de indicación de CUP en pacientes con estadía hospitalaria previa de dos semanas y fomentar el retiro de CUP antes del séptimo día de uso.

Abstract Catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI) is a relevant problem in health centers because of its high frequency. Objective: To identify UTI risk factors in adult patients with urinary catheter. Material and Method: Control case study carried out between the years 2010-2016 at the Military Hospital of Santiago, Chile. Univariate and multivariate statistical analysis were performed using the binary logistic regression model, variables such as age, duration and indication of the device, some comorbidities and the installation of the device after 15 days of hospitalization. Result: A total of 63 cases and 123 controls were obtained. Predictive variables of CAUTI for the duration of the urinary catheter from the 7th day onwards (OR 2.6 IC 1.4-4.9, p = 0.004) and the installation of the urinary catheter with a previous hospital stay of 15 days and more (OR 7.8 CI 2.9-20.9 p = 0.000). No association was found in age over 80 years, comorbidities such as diabetes and neurogenic bladder and indication. Conclusions: The results permitted to focus the interventions, evaluating the real need for indication of CUP in patients with previous hospital statistics of 2 weeks and encouraging the withdrawal of CUP before the 7th day of use.

Tourniquets used in peripheral venipuncture as a potential vehicle for transmission of microorganisms: scoping review / Torniquetes utilizados en la venopunción periférica como potencial vehículo de transmisión de microorganismos: revisión de alcance

Introduction: The tourniquet used in venipuncture appears as a potential vehicle for the transmission of microorganisms that interferes with safety and the quality of clinical services. Objective: Mapping the scientific evidence on the microbiological contamination of the tourniquets used in peripheral venipuncture. Methodology: Scoping review following the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology. Results: 20 studies have been included, in which of 1477 tourniquets were analyzed. The rates of microbiological contamination varied between 10-100% and 19 studies reported the presence of S. aureus, 11 of them detected methicillin-resistant strains with prevalence between 3.3-58.3%. Conclusion: The contamination rate in the majority of studies was ≥70%, including 4 studies which had sampled ≥100 tourniquets. The evidence of our study is that the tourniquets are reservoirs of potential pathogens and can be transmitted to patient on staff hands. We recommend studies that confirm the reusable tourniquets can be responsible to healthcare associated infections.

Introducción: El torniquete utilizado en la venopunción aparece como potencial vehículo para transmisión de microorganismos que entorpece la seguridad y calidad de los servicios clínicos. Objetivo: Mapear pruebas científicas sobre contaminación microbiológica de los torniquetes utilizados en la venopunción periférica. Metodología: Revisión de acuerdo con la metodología del Instituto Joanna Briggs. Resultados: Se han incluido 20 estudios, en los que se analizó un total de 1477 torniquetes. Las tasas de contaminación microbiológica variaron entre 10-100% y 19 estudios informaron la presencia de S. aureus, 11 detectaron cepas resistentes a meticilina con prevalencia entre 3.3-58.3%. Conclusión: La tasa de contaminación en mayoría de los estudios fue ≥70%, 4 estudios que habían muestreado ≥100 torniquetes. Nuestro estudio evidencia que los torniquetes son reservorios de patógenos y pueden transmitirse al paciente en manos del personal. Recomendamos estudios que confirmen que los torniquetes pueden ser responsables de las infecciones asociadas a la atención médica.

Resistance profile to antimicrobials agents in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from hospitals in South Brazil between 2014-2019

Abstract INTRODUCTION: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a common pathogen causing healthcare-associated infections. Owing to the restricted use of beta-lactams in MRSA infections, non-beta-lactam antimicrobials are required for treatment. However, MRSA can develop resistance mechanisms to non-beta-lactam antimicrobials, which reduces viable treatment options. Here, we evaluated the antimicrobial susceptibility and resistance genes of MRSA isolated from hospitalized patients in South Brazil. METHODS: The antimicrobial susceptibilities of hospital MRSA (217) isolates were determined by disk diffusion or microdilution methods. Additionally, the presence of 14 resistance genes and SCCmec typing was performed by PCR. RESULTS: Among the antimicrobials tested, we observed high erythromycin (74.2%), ciprofloxacin (64.5%), and clindamycin (46.1%) resistance rates and complete susceptibility to linezolid and vancomycin. Seventeen different patterns of MRSA antimicrobial resistance were observed, of which 42.9% represented multidrug resistance. Among erythromycin-resistant MRSA, 53.4%, 45.3%, 37.9%, 13.0%, and 6.8% carried ermA, msrA, msrB, ermC, and ermB genes, respectively. Among clindamycin-resistant MRSA, 83%, 17%, 10%, 4%, and 2% carried ermA, ermC, ermB, linA, and linB genes, respectively. Among gentamicin-resistant MRSA, 96.8%, 83.9%, and 9.7% carried aac(6')/aph(2''), aph(3')-IIIa, and ant(4')-Ia genes, respectively. Among tetracycline-resistant MRSA, 6.5% and 93.5% carried tetK and tetM genes, respectively. Lastly, among trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole-resistant MRSA, 13.3% and 100% carried dfrA and dfrG genes, respectively. The SCCmec type IV isolates were detected more frequently, whereas the SCCmec type III isolates exhibited higher multidrug resistance. CONCLUSIONS: The study data provides information regarding the MRSA resistance profile in South Brazil that is associated with the clinical conditions of patients and can contribute to clinical decision-making.

Protocol for developing a surveillance system for surgical site infections

Purpose: Healthcare-associated infections (HCAIs/ HAIs) are the most common adverse occurrences during health care delivery. Across the globe, millions of patients are affected by HAIs annually, with a higher burden and impact in developing nations. a major lacuna in planning preventing protocols is the absence of National Surveillance Systems in most low-middle income countries, which also prevents allocation of resources to the high-priority areas. Among all the HAIs, there is a huge global burden of SSIs, in terms of morbidity, prolonged hospital stays, increased antimicrobial treatment as well as attributable mortality. Method: This manuscript details the process of establishment of an SSI surveillance protocol at a level-1 trauma centre in North India. Result and Conclusion: Surveillance is an essential tool to reduce this burden. It is also an important primary step in recognizing problems and priorities, and it plays a crucial role in identifying risk factors for SSI and to be able to target modifiable risk factors. Therefore, it is imperative to establish reliable systems for surveillance of HAIs, to regularly estimate the actual burden of HAIs, and to use these data for developing indigenous preventive measures, tailored to the country's priorities.

Caracterización clínica y epidemiológica de infección asociada a atención en salud por virus influenza en pacientes críticos / Clinical and epidemiological characterization of healthcare acquired influenza in critical ill patients

Resumen Introduccion: Las infecciones asociadas a atencion de salud (IAAS) aumentan la morbilidad y mortalidad. Durante 2014, en Hospital Clinico Red de Salud UC Christus (RS-UCCH) se estimo que 15% de las infecciones virales respiratorias fueron adquiridas durante la atencion de salud, siendo mas frecuente el virus influenza. Objetivos: Caracterizacion clinico-epidemiologica de IAAS por influenza en pacientes hospitalizados en unidades de pacientes criticos (UPC) y cuidados especiales. Material y Metodos: Estudio descriptivo. Se incluyeron pacientes en UPC y cuidados especiales con IAAS influenza entre 2014 y 2017 en RS-UCCH. IAAS por influenza se definio como: inicio de sintomas y/o RPC-TR positiva para virus influenza ≥ 48 h de ingreso hospitalario, sin sintomatologia respiratoria o estudio negativo previo. Resultados: Se identificaron 22 pacientes, edad mediana 74 anos. La influenza fue adquirida en promedio al dia 13; el 77% fue por influenza A y el 27% presento coinfeccion respiratoria. Trece (59%) estaban hospitalizados en UPC, dos (15%) por problemas pulmonares. El 86% tenia co-morbilidad y el 50% descompensacion de ella. No estaba vacunado 59%; la letalidad observada fue 18%. Conclusiones: IAAS por influenza ocurrio en pacientes cronicos, de mayor edad y no vacunados. Es primordial educar en prevencion de IAAS y mantener altas coberturas de vacunacion.

Background: Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) increase morbidity and mortality. During 2014, at the Hospital Clinico Red de Salud UC Christus (RS-UCCH) it was estimated that 15% of respiratory viral infections were acquired during hospitalization and influenza A was more frequent. Aims: Clinical and epidemiological characterization of HAIs due to influenza virus in patients hospitalized in critical care units (CCU) and special care. Methods: Descriptive study. We included patients hospitalized in CCU and special care with hospital acquired influenza during 2014-2017. HAI due to influenza was defined as: symptom onset and/or positive influenza PCR after ≥ 48 hours of hospital admission, without previous respiratory symptoms or previous negative influenza test study. Results: 22 patients were identified, median age was 74 years. Influenza was acquired average on day 13. Influenza A was detected in 77% and 27% had respiratory co-infection. Thirteen (59%) were hospitalized in CCU, only 2 (15%) due to lung problems. Comorbidity was present in 86% and decompensation in 50%. Only 41% received influenza vaccine. The associated lethality was 18%. Conclusions: HAI due to influenza occurred in chronic, older and unvaccinated patients. Education about HAIs and continuous high vaccination coverage must be reinforced.

Nursing Care in Healthcare-Associated Infections: A Scoping Review / Cuidado de enfermería en las Infecciones Relacionadas con la Asistencia Sanitaria: Scoping review / Cuidado de enfermagem nas Infecções Relacionadas à Assistência à Saúde: Scoping review

ABSTRACT Objective: To identify and map nursing care to the adult patient with Healthcare-Associated Infections admitted to the Intensive Care Unit. Method: Scoping Review, conducted in January 2018, through the search of studies in national and international databases, journals, catalogs of theses and dissertations, and websites of Brazilian health institutions. We included full surveys published in the Portuguese, Spanish or English language; which had as object of study the researched subject, besides manuals and protocols. We analyzed the type of material, year, country, population, method, Level of Evidence, and nursing care. The final sample consisted of 33 publications. Results: Among the nursing care to the patient, hand hygiene was identified, general care in nursing procedures, use of protocols, effective communication and periodic training. Conclusion: Identifying patient care with infection was important in order to list methods and reorient nursing activities.

RESUMEN Objetivo: Identificar y asignar los cuidados de enfermería al paciente adulto con Infecciones Relacionadas a la Asistencia a la Salud internado en Unidad de Terapia Intensiva. Método: Scoping Review, realizado en enero de 2018, mediante la búsqueda de estudios en bases de datos, revistas, catálogos de tesis y disertaciones nacionales e internacionales, además de sitios de instituciones brasileñas de salud. Esto incluye la investigación publicada en su totalidad en portugués, español o Inglés; que tenían como objeto de estudio la temática investigada, además de manuales y protocolos. Se analizó el tipo de material, año, país, población, método, Nivel de evidencia, y cuidados de enfermería. La muestra final fue de 33 publicaciones. Resultados: Entre los cuidados de enfermería al paciente, se identificó la higienización de las manos, cuidados generales en los procedimientos de enfermería, utilización de protocolos, comunicación efectiva y entrenamientos periódicos. Conclusión: Identificar los cuidados al paciente con infección fue importante para elencar métodos y reorientar las actividades de la Enfermería.

RESUMO Objetivo: Identificar e mapear os cuidados de enfermagem ao paciente adulto com Infecções Relacionadas à Assistência à Saúde internado em Unidade de Terapia Intensiva. Método: Scoping Review, realizado em janeiro de 2018, mediante busca de estudos em bases de dados, revistas, catálogos de teses e dissertações nacionais e internacionais, além de sites de instituições brasileiras de saúde. Incluem-se pesquisas publicadas na íntegra na língua portuguesa, espanhola ou inglesa; que tinham como objeto de estudo a temática investigada, além de manuais e protocolos. Analisou-se o tipo de material, ano, país, população, método, Nível de Evidência, e cuidados de enfermagem. A amostra final foi de 33 publicações. Resultados: Dentre os cuidados de enfermagem ao paciente, identificou-se a higienização das mãos, cuidados gerais nos procedimentos de enfermagem, utilização de protocolos, comunicação efetiva e treinamentos periódicos. Conclusão: Identificar os cuidados ao paciente com infecção foi importante para elencar métodos e reorientar as atividades da Enfermagem.