Neuropeptides in the posterodorsal medial amygdala modulate central cardiovascular reflex responses in awake male rats

The rat posterodorsal medial amygdala (MePD) links emotionally charged sensory stimuli to social behavior, and is part of the supramedullary control of the cardiovascular system. We studied the effects of microinjections of neuroactive peptides markedly found in the MePD, namely oxytocin (OT, 10 ng and 25 pg; n=6/group), somatostatin (SST, 1 and 0.05 μM; n=8 and 5, respectively), and angiotensin II (Ang II, 50 pmol and 50 fmol; n=7/group), on basal cardiovascular activity and on baroreflex- and chemoreflex-mediated responses in awake adult male rats. Power spectral and symbolic analyses were applied to pulse interval and systolic arterial pressure series to identify centrally mediated sympathetic/parasympathetic components in the heart rate variability (HRV) and arterial pressure variability (APV). No microinjected substance affected basal parameters. On the other hand, compared with the control data (saline, 0.3 µL; n=7), OT (10 ng) decreased mean AP (MAP50) after baroreflex stimulation and increased both the mean AP response after chemoreflex activation and the high-frequency component of the HRV. OT (25 pg) increased overall HRV but did not affect any parameter of the symbolic analysis. SST (1 μM) decreased MAP50, and SST (0.05 μM) enhanced the sympathovagal cardiac index. Both doses of SST increased HRV and its low-frequency component. Ang II (50 pmol) increased HRV and reduced the two unlike variations pattern of the symbolic analysis (P<0.05 in all cases). These results demonstrate neuropeptidergic actions in the MePD for both the increase in the range of the cardiovascular reflex responses and the involvement of the central sympathetic and parasympathetic systems on HRV and APV.

Papel de la adrenomedulina cerebelosa en la regulación de la presión arterial / Role of cerebelar adrenomedullin in blood pressure regulation

La adrenomedulina (AM) es un péptido ubicuo de 52 residuos de aminoácidos que cumple funciones importantes en la regulación de la función cardiovascular (CDV). La AM ejerce sus acciones a través de su unión con tres subtipos de receptores, el receptor del péptido relacionado al gen de la calcitonina tipo 1 (CGRP1), el receptor de AM tipo 1 (AM1) y tipo 2 (AM2). El CGRP1 está formado por el receptor similar al receptor de calcitonina (CRLR) y la proteína que modifica la actividad del receptor tipo 1 (RAMP1). El AM1 por el CRLR+RAMP2 y el AM2 por el CRLR+RAMP3. A nivel del sistema nervioso central, la AM y sus receptores se localizan en diversas regiones, incluyendo el cerebelo. Se ha demostrado marcados incrementos en la densidad de los sitios de unión para la AM en el cerebelo durante la hipertensión, lo que sugiere un papel del sistema adrenomedulinérgico cerebeloso en la regulación de la presión arterial (PA). En el presente estudio se evaluó la participación de la AM cerebelosa en la regulación de la PA. Nuestros hallazgos muestran la existencia de desregulación de los componentes del sistema AM cerebeloso durante la hipertensión, ya que se encontró una reducida expresión de CRLR, RAMP1 y RAMP3 y una incrementada expresión de la AM y RAMP2 en el vermis de cerebelo de ratas hipertensas (SHR), cuando se comparó con las ratas controles, Wistar Kyoto (WKY), de 8 y 16 semanas de edad. La reducción de la PA mediante el tratamiento crónico con valsartán (60mg/Kg/día,p.o.) revirtió las desregulación de la AM y los componentes de su receptor, observados en las ratas SHR. El papel de las especies reactivas de oxígeno (EROS) en la acción de la AM cerebelosa quedó evidenciado, ya que la AM fue capaz de reducir la actividad de las tres enzimas antioxidantes, superóxiodo dismutasa (SOD), catalasa (CAT) y glutatión peroxidasa (GPx), en las ratas WKY y Sprague - Dawley (SD). Aún mas, nuestros hallazgos mostraron claramente el efecto antagónico entre la AM y la ANG II sobre la actividad de las enzimas antioxidantes inducida por la ANG II. El efecto de la AM sobre las enzimas antioxidantes no se manifestó en la ratas hipertensas, sin embargo el mismo fue restaurado mediante la disminución de la presión arterial con la administración crónica de dos antihipertensivos de mecanismo de acción distintos como la amlodipina (5mg/Kg/día,p.o) o el valsartán (60mg/Kg/día,p.o), lo que sugiere una relación entre la hipertensión y ausencia del efecto de AM en la ratas SHR. Al evaluar la posible vía de señalización que media la acción de la AM y el antagonismo con la ANG II sobre la actividad de las enzimas antioxidantes, demostramos que no existe una vía final común para dicho antagonismo, siendo la proteína quinasa A (PKA) y los 3 subtipos de receptores CGRP1, AM1 y AM2 los que median la acción de la AM, mientras que la acción de la ANG II se encuentra mediada a través de una vía que involucra la PKC/NAD(P)H oxidasa. Los hallazgos demuestran el antagonismo entre la AM y la ANG II en la regulación del estrés oxidativo en el cerebelo y ratifican la desregulación de la señalización de la AM mediada por EROs durante la hipertensión. Al evaluar las vías de señalización intracelular que median la acción de la AM en el cerebelo, demostramos que la AM es capaz de activar a las ERK, la producción de GMPc y NO a través de la estimulación del receptor AM1, y del AMPc a través de los tres subtipos de receptores de AM, lo que apoya que en el cerebelo la AM ejerce acciones a través de diversas vías de señalización como lo son NO/GMPc, AC/AMPc/PKA y/o ERK. El posible papel funcional de la AM in vivo fue inequívoco, ya que se demostró que la microinyección de AM en el vermis cerebeloso produjo una respuesta hipotensora profunda en las ratas SHR pero no en las normotensas. El hecho que la microinyección de AM en el vermis cerebelar en las ratas SD, WKY y SHR disminuyó significativamente la respuesta presora frente al estrés simpatoadrenal inducido por el estímulo eléctrico plantar, sugiere que la acción hipotensora está mediada a través de la regulación del eflujo simpático e indica un posible papel de la AM en la regulación de la respuesta CDV frente al estrés. En conjunto, nuestros resultados demuestran la existencia de un sistema adrenomedulinérgico funcional en el cerebelo, e indican por primera vez, que la AM cumple un papel importante en la regulación de la PA durante la hipertensión y el estrés.

Mineralocorticoid modulation of central angiotensin-induced neuronal activity, water intake and sodium appetite

Central angiotensin II (AngII) stimulates water and salt solution intake. Pretreatment with low-dose mineralocorticoid (DOCA) enhances this AngII-induced intake of salt solutions (the synergy theory) in Wistar and Sprague Dawley rats but not in Fischer rats. This response is mediated via the AT-1 receptor. Electrophysiological experiments using iontophoretic application of AngII and the AT-1 receptor-specific non-peptide antagonist losartan showed excitation of neurons in the preoptic/medial septum region of urethane-anesthetized male Wistar rats. DOCA pretreatment further enhances this neuronal excitation in response to AngII and reduces the responses to losartan. This generated the hypothesis that DOCA-enhanced AngII-induced neuronal excitation is the neural support for the synergy theory. AT-2 receptors modulate these intake responses depending on sodium in the diet, and diuretic-induced dehydration during pregnancy produces a higher salt intake in the offspring. AngII-induced salt and water intakes were tested in offspring from Sprague Dawley mothers with only 1.8 percent NaCl to drink in which half were treated with furosemide. The important observations were a) the AT-1 antagonist alone suppressed intakes in offspring from mothers not treated with furosemide, b) both AT-1 and AT-2 antagonists suppressed intakes in offspring from furosemide-treated mothers, and c) combined administration of AT-1 and AT-2 antagonists greatly suppressed water intake in offspring from mothers not treated with furosemide. These results suggest that AT-1 and AT-2 receptors have variable properties (receptor number and/or second messengers). Furthermore, the activity and function of these central AngII receptors depend on the background mineralocorticoid levels. The exact mechanism of this influence, however, remains to be determined.

The hyperglycemia induced by angiotensin II in rats is mediated by AT1 receptors

We have shown that the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) is involved in glucose homeostasis during acute hemorrhage. Since almost all of the physiological actions described for angiotensin II were mediated by AT1 receptors, the present experiments were designed to determine the participation of AT1 receptors in the hyperglycemic action of angiotensin II in freely moving rats. The animals were divided into two experimental groups: 1) animals submitted to intravenous administration of angiotensin II (0.96 nmol/100 g body weight) which caused a rapid increase in plasma glucose reaching the highest values at 5 min after the injection (33 per cent of the initial values, P<0.01), and 2) animals submitted to intravenous administration of DuP-753 (losartan), a non-peptide antagonist of angiotensin II with AT1-receptor type specificity (1.63 µmol/100 g body weight as a bolus, iv, plus a 30-min infusion of 0.018 µmol 100 g body weight-1 min-1 before the injection of angiotensin II), which completely blocked the hyperglycemic response to angiotensin II (P<0.01). This inhibitory effect on glycemia was already demonstrable 5 min (8.9 ñ 0.28 mM, angiotensin II, N = 9 vs 6.4 ñ 0.22 mM, losartan plus angiotensin II, N = 11) after angiotensin II injection and persisted throughout the 30-min experiment. Controls were treated with the same volume of saline solution (0.15 M NaCl). These data demonstrate that the angiotensin II receptors involved in the direct and indirect hyperglycemic actions of angiotensin II are mainly of the AT1-type.

Inhibitory effect of DUP-753 on the drinking responses of rats to central administration of noradrenaline and angiotensin II and to dehydration

We investigated the effect of losartan (DUP-753) on the dipsogenic responses produced by intracerebroventricular (icv) injection of noradrenaline (40 nmol/mul) and angiotensin II (ANG II (2 ng/mul) in male Holtzman rats weighing 250-300g. The effect of DUP-753 was also studied in animals submitted to water deprivation for 30 h. After control injections of isotonic saline (0.15 M NaCl, 1 mul) into the lateral ventricle (LV) the water intake was 0.2 ñ 0.01 ml/h. DUP-753 (50 nmol/mul) when injected alone into the LV of satiated animals had no significant effect on drinking (0.4 ñ 0.02 ml/h) (N = 8). DUP-753 (50 nmol/mul) injected into the LV prior to noradrenaline reduced the water intake from 2.4 ñ 0.8 to 0.8 ñ 0.2 ml/h (N = 8). The water intake induced by injection of ANG II and water deprivation was also reduced from 9.2+ 1.4 and 12.7 ñ 1.4 ml/h to 0.8 ñ 0.2 and 1.7 ñ 0.3 ml/h (N = 6 and N=8), respectively. These data indicate a correlation between noradrenergic pathways and angiotensinergic receptors and lead us to conclude that noradrenaline-induced water intake may be due to the release of ANG II by the brain. The finding that water intake was reduced by DUP-753 in water-deprived animals suggests that dehydration releases ANG II and, that AT1 receptors of the brain play an important role in the regulation of water intake induced by deprivation.

Effect of a non-peptide angiotensin receptor antagonist on water intake caused by centrally administered carbachol on the rat

Angiotensin II (ANG II) administered centrally produces drinking by acting on subtype 1 ANG II (AT1) receptors. Carbachol, a cholinergic receptor agonist, also induces drinking behavior by a central action. In the present study we determined whether the response to carbachol also involves AT1 receptors. Male Holtzman rats (250-300 g) with stainless steel cannula implanted into the lateral ventricle (LV) were used. Water intake after injection of 0. 15 M NaCl (1.0 microL) into the LV was 0.2 +/- 0.01 ml/h (N = 8). The AT1 receptor antagonist DUP-753 (50 nmol/microL) injected into the LV reduced water intake induced by ANG H (10 nmol/microL) from 9.2 +/- 1.4 to 0.4 +/- 0.1 ml/h (N = 8), and water intake induced by carbachol (2 nmol/microL) from 9.8 +/- 1.4 ml/h to 3.7 +/- 0.8 ml/h (N = 8). These results suggest that AT1 receptors play a role in the drinking behavior observed after central cholinergic stimulation in rats.

The role of angiotensin AT1 receptors in the diuretic, natriuretic, kaliuretic and blood pressure responses induced by angiotensin II activation of the median preoptic nucleus in conscious rats

We determined the effects of two classical angiotensin II (ANG II) antagonists, [Sar1, Ala8]-ANG II and [Sar1, Thr8]-ANG II, and losartan (a nonpeptide and selective antagonist for the AT1 angiotensin receptors) on diuresis, natriuresis, kaliuresis and arterial blood pressure induced by ANG II administration into the median preoptic nucleus (MnPO) of male Holtzman rats weighing 250-300 g. Urine was colected in rats submitted to a water load (5 percent body weight) by gastric gavage, followed by a second water load (5 percent body weight) 1 h later. The volume of the drug solutions injected was 0.5 µl over 10-15 s. Pre-treatment with [Sar1, Ala8]-ANG II (12 rats) and [Sar1, Thr8]-ANG II (9 rats), at the dose of 60 ng reduced (13.7 +/- 1.0 vs 11.0 +/- 1.0 +/- 1.2, respectively), whereas losartam (14 rats) at the dose of 160 ng totally blocked (13.7 +/- 1.0 vs.7.6 +/- 1.5) the urine excretion induced by injection of 12 ng of ANG II (14 rats)...

Progesterone administration to ovariectomized rats reduces water and salt intake induced by central administration of angiotensin II

We tested the effects of estradiol, progesterone and testosterone on water and salt intake induced by angiotensin II (ANG II) injected into the third ventricle of female Holtzman rats weighing 250-300 g. The water and salt ingestion observed after 120 min in the control experiments (injection of 0.5µl of 0.15 M NaCl into the third ventricle) was 1.6 ñ 0.3 ml (N = 10) and 0,3 ñ 0.1 ml (N = 8) in intact rats, respectively, and 1.4 ñ 0.3 ml (N = 10) and 0.2 ñ 0.1 (N = 8) in ovariectomized rats, respectively. ANG II injected in intact rats (4, 6, 12, 25, and 50 ng, icv, in 0,5 µl saline) induced an increase in water intake (4.3 ñ 0.6, 5.4 ñ 0.7, 7.8 ñ 0.8, 10.4 ñ 1.2, 11.2 ñ 1.4 ml/120 min, respectively) ( N = 43). The same doses of icv ANG II in intact increased the 3 per cent NaCl intake (0.9 ñ 0,2, 1.4 ñ 0,3, 2,3 ñ 0.4, 2,2 ñ 0,3, and 2.5 ñ 0.4 ml/120 min, respectively) (N = 42). When administered to ovariectomized rats ANG II induced comparable amounts of water intake (4.0 ñ 0.5, 4.8 ñ 0.6 ñ 0.7, 9.6 ñ 0.8, and 10.9 ñ 1.2 ml/120 min, respectively (

Angiotensin converting activity assessed in vivo is increased in hereditary hypertensive rats

1. The angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) activity of spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) and spontaneously hypertensive stroke-prone (SHRSP) rats was compared to the ACE activity of normotensive Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY). 2. ACE activity was assessed indirectly in conscious unrestrained rats using the equipressor response end point to simultaneously calculate the extent of conversion of angiotensin I (AI) to angiotensin II (AII) and the pulmonary degradation of bradykinin (BK). 3. The pulmonary degradation of BK was significantly elevated (99.4%) in SHR rats whereas the elevation was not significant in SHRSP rats (99.2%) compared to WKY rats, even though the pulmonary inactivation of BK in WKY rats was higher (98.6%) than in normotensive Wistar rats (95.6% and 97.5%) previously studied. 4. Blood pressure responsiveness to intra-aortically injected BK (bolus injection and infusion) was markedly increased in SHR and SHRSP rats with no change in reactivity to sodium nitroprusside. 5. Conversion of AI to AII assessed by the equipressor doses of the hormones which produced a 20-mmHg rise in blood pressure was markedly elevated in SHR (86 +/- 4%) and SHRSP (80 +/- 7%) rats when compared to WKY rats (38 +/- 4%). 6. The marked increase in conversion of AI to AII in hypertensive animals, accompanied by an increased pulmonary degradation of BK in SHR rats, suggests that ACE activity is increased in conscious SHR and SHRSP rats and may participate in the genesis of hypertension in this model of genetic hypertension

Intrinsic heart rate after infusion of angiotensin II in rats with sino-aortic deafferentation

We investigated the effect of the infusion of angiotensin II on intrinsic heart rate in rats with sin-aortic deafferentation. Sino-aortic deafferented (SAD) rats studied 48 h after surgery presented significant tachycardia when compared with sham-operated rats (425 ñ 16 vs 338 ñ6 bpm), but no change in intrinsic heart rate (369 ñ vs 369 ñ 11 bpm). Infusion of angiotensin II into the SAD group 48 h after deafferentation did not produce an additional increase in heart rate (423 ñ 16 vs 426 ñ 16 bpm) or a change in intrinsic heart rate (369 ñ 11 vs 369 ñ 9 bpm) when compared with sham-operated rats submitted to saline infusion. Intravenous (iv) infusion of angiotensin II into sham- operated rats produced a significant increase in both heart rat (381 ñ 12 vs 338 ñ 6 bpm) and intrinsic heart rate (427 ñ vs 369 ñ 11 bpm). These data indicate that a) tachycardia after SAD is not associated with an increase in intrinsic heart rate, b) in sham-operated rats, the tachycardia occuring after angiotensin II infusion is associated with an increase in intrinsic heart rate, and c) angiotensin II infusion does not alter the intrinsic heartrate of rats tested 48 h after sino-aortic deafferentation. We conclude that the increase in intrinsic heart rate caused by angiotensin II in conscious rats depends on the integrity of the baroreceptor reflex

Central actions of angiotensin II on heart rate and blood pressure in mongrel dogs.

Angiotensin II is produced physiologically in response to renal ischaemia due to hypotension. It's effect on heart rate and blood pressure were studied on anaesthetised mongrel dogs. Angiotensin II was given in different concentrations, by intravenous, intraarterial in carotid artery and intracerebroventricular routes. Cervical vagotomy and carotid sinus inactivation were done is abolish the reflex inhibition produced by baroreflexes. Rise of B.P. is due to mainly peripheral vasopressor action of angiotensin II, however it is shown to have a central component as well. This is demonstrated by ICV injections. Tachycardia due to central action is also demonstrated in this study. Both actions are significant. This study also confirm the earlier findings that angiotensin II passes the blood brain barrier.

Effect of intracerebroventricular administration of angiotensin II on emetic reflex in dogs.

Area postrema is rich in angiotensin II receptors and intravenous (iv) administration of angiotensin II has been reported to elicit emesis. However, in the present study intracerebroventricular (icv) administration of angiotensin II up to a dose of 10 micrograms failed to elicit emesis. It is suggested that presence of a cerebrospinal fluid-brain barrier in area postrema most probably prevents access of icv angiotensin II to its receptors which are otherwise accessible on iv administration.

Efecto combinado de angiotensina II, met-encefalina y acetilcolina administradas intracerebroventricularmente sobre la presión arterial media en ratas albinas / Combined effect of intracerebroventricular injections of angiotensin II, met-enkephalin and acetylcholine on mean arterial pressure in albino rats

Se probó el efecto de la inyección intracerebroventricular de varios neurotransmisores, dados en forma independiente y combinada (Ang. II, 200 ng; ACh., 6 µg; y met-encefalina, 50 µg) sobre la presión arterial media (PAM) de ratas albinas de la cepa Sprague-Dawley. Bajo anestesia con nembutal (35mg/Kg), se implantó una cánula metálica en el tercer ventrículo por los medios esteriotáxicos usuales y al tercer día el animal se anestesió de nuevo para la medición de la presión carótidea mediante un transductor de presión y registro continuo en un polígrafo fisiológico. La Ang. II aumentó la PAM; la acetilcolina mostró un aumento significativo en los primeros cinco minutos luego de la inyección y la met-encefalina no mostró ningún cambio significativo en al PAM. El efecto combinado mostró resultados interesantes. En vez de una potenciación del aumento de la presión arterial media, cuando ACh. y Ang. II se administrarón conjuntamente, no se observaron cambios estadísticamente significativos, por lo que su efecto se neutralizó. También, la met-encefalina bloqueó la respuesta hipertensora de la Ag. II al darse en forma combinada. Esto es compatible con la acción inhibitoria de la met-encefalinaen el sistema neuronal angiotensinérgico. Se especula acerca de un modelo hipotético que explica los hallazgos observados

Efeito da aplicaçäo intracerebroventricular da angiotensina II e da des-amino-angiotensina II sobre a ingestäo de água, pressäo arterial e frequência cardíaca / Effect of intracerebroventricular infusion of angiotensin II and des-amino-angiotensin II on water intake , arterial pressure and heart rate

Os efeitos centrais da aplicaçäo no ventrículo cerebral lateral da angiotensina II (AII) e da des-amino-AII (des-NH2-AII) sobre a ingestäo de água, pressäo arterial e frequência cardíaca foram determinados em ratos. Os resultados demonstraram que tanto a AII como a des-NH2-AII exercem efeitos pressor e dipsogênico por açäo no sistema nervoso central. A des-NH2-AII näo influenciou na frequência cardíaca, embora seu efeito pressor tenha sido semelhante ao da AII. Pelos resultados obtidos podemos sugerir que os dois agonistas atuam no mesmo sistema de receptores, mas a des-NH2-AII apresenta afinidade e atividade ligeiramente maiores do que a AII

Effect of centrally administered angiotensin on urine output in dogs.

The effect of angiotensin II was studied on urine volume, urine sodium and potassium sodium and potassium in mongrel dogs. Intracerebro-ventricular (icv) administration of angiotensin (100.0 micrograms) caused significant increase in urine volume without significant change in urine sodium and potassium level. Similar effect is also obtained in denervated dogs. The effect of intracerebroventricularly administered angiotensin is possibly due to the decrease in secretion of the Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from posterior lobe of pituitary gland.

Modification of hyperglycaemic effect of angiotensin by indomethacin.

Effect of angiotensin II was studied on blood sugar level in dogs. Angiotensins given by intravenous route caused a marked rise in blood sugar level. Indomethacin and propranolol significantly influence the changes in blood sugar level induced by angiotensin. It is suggested that the hyperglycaemia induced by angiotensin appears to be mediated by facilitation of adrenaline and prostaglandin release.

Effect of angiotensin II on total plasma protein and albumin content in dogs.

Intravenous administration of angiotensin II caused a significant decrease in total plasma protein and albumin level in dogs. The central nervous system, the spleen and adrenal glands do not play any significant role in decreased plasma protein and albumin level. It is suggested that might be due to increased secretion of prostaglandin-like substances from the dog kidney causing increased permeability of vascularendothelium.