Comparison of coagulation function between adrenocorticotropic hormone independent Cushing syndrome and nonfunctional adrenal adenoma and its influence factors / 北京大学学报(医学版)

OBJECTIVE@#To investigate the coagulation function indicators and identify influence factors of hypercoagulability in patients with adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) independent Cushing syndrome (CS).@*METHODS@#In our retrospective study, the electronic medical records system of Peking University First Hospital was searched for the patients diagnosed with ACTH independent CS on discharge from January 2014 to June 2019. Nonfunctional adrenal adenoma patients were chosen as control group and matched 1 ∶1 by body mass index (BMI), gender, and discharge date. Clinical features and coagulation function indicators were compared between the two groups.@*RESULTS@#In the study, 171 patients were included in each group. Compared with control group, activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), and prothrombin time (PT) in ACTH independent CS group were significantly lower [(29.22±3.39) s vs. (31.86±3.63) s, P < 0.001; (29.22±3.39) s vs. (31.86±3.63) s, P < 0.001], and both D-dimer and fibrin degradation products (FDP) levels were significantly higher (P < 0.05). Percentage of APTT levels under the lower limit of reference range in the CS patients was significantly higher than that in nonfunctional group (21.6% vs. 3.5%, P < 0.001). Percentage of D-dimer levels over the upper limit of reference range in the CS patients was significantly higher than that in nonfunctional group (13.5% vs. 6.6%, P=0.041). There were three patients with deep venous thrombosis and one patient with pulmonary embolism in CS group, however none was in control group. The area under curve (AUC) of serum cortisol rhythm (8:00, 16:00 and 24:00) levels was negatively associated with the levels of PT (r=-0.315, P < 0.001) and APTT (r=-0.410, P < 0.001), and positively associated with FDP (r=0.303, P < 0.001) and D-dimer levels (r=0.258, P < 0.001). There were no differences in coagulation function indicators among different histopathologic subgroups (adrenocortical adenoma, adrenocortical hyperplasia, oncocytic adenoma, adrenocortical carcinoma). With Logistic regression analysis, the AUC of cortisol and glycosylated hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels were independent risk factors for hypercoagulability in the ACTH independent CS patients (P < 0.05).@*CONCLUSION@#ACTH independent CS patients were more likely in hypercoagulable state compared with nonfunctional adrenal adenoma, especially in ACTH independent CS patients with higher levels of cortisol AUC and HbA1c. These patients should be paid attention to for the hypercoagulability and thrombosis risk.

Enfermedad de Cushing recurrente con hipercortisolismo catastrófico: reporte de caso y revisión de literatura / Catastrophic hypercortisolism and recurrence in Cushing´s disease: a case report and literature review / Doença de Cushing recorrente com hipercortisolismo catastrófico: relato de caso e revisão da literatura

Resumen: Presentamos un caso de una paciente femenina de 27 años, con síndrome de Cushing ACTH dependiente con hipercortisolismo severo, causado por un macroadenoma hipofisario recurrente y resistente pese a dos cirugías transesfenoidales, radioterapia y terapia médica. Dada la falla en las diferentes terapias se realiza una adrenalectomía bilateral como tratamiento definitivo. La paciente fallece en el posoperatorio por causa no clara. Si bien la adrenalectomía bilateral ha sido reportada como un tratamiento efectivo en pacientes con enfermedad de Cushing, se ha relacionado con una mortalidad significativa vinculada con la severidad del hipercortisolismo y las comorbilidades presentes. En este caso la adrenalectomía izquierda se tuvo que convertir a cielo abierto, asociada con mayor morbimortalidad.

Abstract: The study presents the case of a 27-year-old female patient with adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) dependent Cushing's disease and severe hypercortisolism caused by recurrent pituitary macroadenoma that was resistant to treatment despite two transsphenoidal surgeries, radiotherapy and medical treatment. Upon failure of the different therapies a bilateral adrenalectomy was performed as the final treatment. The patient died in after surgery although the case of death was not clear. Despite bilateral adrenalectomy having been reports as an effective treatment in patients with Cushing's disease, it has been related to significant mortality rates in connection with the severity of hypercortisolism and existing comorbilities. In this case the left adrenalectomy ended up being an open surgery, which is associated to a higher mortality rate.

Resumo: Apresentamos o caso de uma paciente de 27 anos com síndrome de Cushing ACTH-dependente com hipercortisolismo grave causado por macroadenoma hipofisário, recorrente e resistente, apesar de haver sido submetida a duas cirurgias transesfenoidal, radioterapia e terapia medicamentosa. Diante do fracasso das diferentes terapias, foi realizada adrenalectomia bilateral como tratamento definitivo. A paciente faleceu no pós-operatório por causa não esclarecida. Embora a adrenalectomia bilateral tenha sido relatada como tratamento eficaz em pacientes com doença de Cushing, ela tem sido associada a mortalidade significativa relacionada à gravidade do hipercortisolismo e às comorbidades presentes. Neste caso, a adrenalectomia esquerda teve que ser convertida para cirurgia aberta, associada a maior morbimortalidade.

Hipertensión arterial secundaria en el adulto: evaluación diagnóstica y manejo / Secondary arterial hypertension in adults: diagnostic assesment and management

La Hipertensión arterial (HTA) es un grave problema de salud pública mundial. En efecto, sus complicaciones causan anualmente 9,4 millones de muertes. La HTA también es un problema de salud de alto impacto en Chile. De hecho, la Encuesta Nacional de Salud (ENS) 2009-2010 del Ministerio de Salud, reportó una prevalencia del 26,9%. La HTA se define como una Presión arterial sistólica (PAS) 140mmHg y/o una Presión arterial diastólica (PAD) 90mmHg. Tradicionalmente, se ha clasificado la HTA en primaria o esencial, que agrupa a más del 90% de los hipertensos adultos; y en secundaria, que reúne a menos del 10% de los hipertensos. En la evaluación inicial de un paciente con HTA, se debe: Confirmar el diagnóstico; 2) Detectar causas de HTA secundaria, y 3) Evaluar riesgo cardiovascular (CV), daño orgánico y comorbilidades. Para ello, se necesita determinar la Presión Arterial (PA) y la historia clínica, que incluya antecedentes familiares, examen físico, pruebas de laboratorio y pruebas diagnósticas adicionales. En un pequeño porcentaje de adultos con HTA, se puede identificar una causa específica y potencialmente reversible; no obstante, debido a su elevada prevalencia, las formas secundarias pueden afectar a millones de pacientes en todo el mundo. Se puede sospechar una forma secundaria de HTA por un alza marcada de la PA, la aparición o empeoramiento repentinos de una HTA, una mala respuesta de la PA al tratamiento farmacológico y por un daño orgánico desproporcionado para la duración de la HTA. Si la evaluación inicial hace pensar que el paciente tiene una HTA secundaria, entonces se debe tener en consideración las causas más relevantes, que se describen en este artículo.

Arterial hypertension is a serious public health problem worldwide. Indeed, its complications cause 9.4 million deaths annually. Hypertension is also a health problem with high impact in Chile. In fact, the National Health Survey 2009-2010, conducted by the Ministry of Health, showed a prevalence of 26.9%. Arterial hypertension is defined as systolic blood pressure (SBP) 140mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure (DBP) 90mmHg. Traditionally, hypertension has been classified into primary or essential, which represents over 90% of adults with hypertension; and secondary, which includes less than 10% of hypertensive patients. The initial evaluation of a patient with hypertension should: 1) Confirm the diagnosis of hypertension; 2) Detect causes of secondary hypertension; and 3) Assess cardiovascular risk, organ damage (OD) and concomitant clinical conditions. This calls for blood pressure (BP) measurement, medical history including family history, physical examination, laboratory investigations and further diagnostic tests. A specific, potentially reversible cause of BP elevation can be identified in a relatively small proportion of adult patients with hypertension. However, because of the overall high prevalence of hypertension, secondary forms can affect millions of patients worldwide. A secondary form of hypertension can be indicated by a severe elevation in BP, sudden onset or worsening of hypertension, poor BP response to drug therapy and OD disproportionate to the duration of hypertension. If the initial assessment suggests that the patient has a secondary hypertension, then you should take into consideration the relevant causes, which are described in this article.

Riesgo cardiovascular en el síndrome de Cushing / Cardiovascular risk found in Cushing syndrome

El síndrome de Cushing se caracteriza por un estado de hipercortisolismo endógeno, que produce múltiples y variadas alteraciones metabólicas que aumentan el riesgo cardiovascular en la fase activa de la enfermedad y aún después de la curación. La presencia de la obesidad central, la dislipidemia, la hipertensión arterial, la resistencia a la insulina y los trastornos en la tolerancia a la glucosa (componentes del síndrome metabólico), aceleran el proceso de la aterosclerosis sistémica. El exceso de glucocorticoides genera además, un estado protrombótico que se acompaña de disfunción endotelial. Esto se traduce en un mayor riesgo de infarto del miocardio, insuficiencia cardiaca, ictus y eventos tromboembólicos venosos. Se ha estimado un incremento de la mortalidad hasta 4 veces mayor cuando se compara a estos pacientes con la población general, de ahí que pueda considerarse una enfermedad potencialmente letal. Asociado a la necesidad de eliminar la causa del exceso de glucocorticoides, se recomienda la evaluación del riesgo cardiovascular global y el tratamiento intensivo de cada uno de los factores de riesgo durante la fase activa, en el periodo de remisión y luego de la curación. Teniendo en cuenta lo mencionado anteriormente y la importancia del tema, se realiza una actualización de la repercusión cardiovascular del hipercortislismo en los pacientes que lo padecen(AU)

Cushing's syndrome is characterized by endogenous hypercortisolism that causes many different metabolic alterations increasing the cardiovascular risk at the active phase of disease and even after recovery. Central obesity, dyslipidemia, blood hypertension, insulin resistance, and glucose tolerance disorders (components of the metabolic syndrome) accelerate the process of systemic atherosclerosis. Excessive glucocorticoids also generate a prothrombotic condition with endothelial dysfunction. This leads to higher risk of myocardial infarction, heart failure, ictus and vein thromboembolic events. A fourfold increase of mortality has been estimated in these patients when compared to the general population; hence this disease may be considered a lethal one. In addition to the need of eliminating the cause of excessive glucocorticoids, it is recommended to evaluate the global cardiovascular risk and the intensive treatment for each of the risk factors during the active phase, in the remission period and after recovery. Taking into account the above-mentioned and the importance of this topic, an update on the cardiovascular impact of hypercortisolism was presented(AU)

Massive Thoracoabdominal Aortic Thrombosis in a Patient with Iatrogenic Cushing Syndrome

Massive thoracoabdominal aortic thrombosis is a rare finding in patients with iatrogenic Cushing syndrome in the absence of any coagulation abnormality. It frequently represents an urgent surgical situation. We report the case of an 82-year-old woman with massive aortic thrombosis secondary to iatrogenic Cushing syndrome. A follow-up computed tomography scan showed a decreased amount of thrombus in the aorta after anticoagulation therapy alone.

Edwardsiella tarda sepsis with multiple liver abscesses in a patient with Cushing's syndrome.

Edwardsiella tarda is very seldom a cause for gastroenteritis in humans. This organism can also cause extraintestinal infections, such as soft tissue infections, meningitis, peritonitis, osteomyelitis, endocarditis and hepatobiliary tract disease, particularly in the setting of compromised immunity. We describe, for the first time a case of E. tarda sepsis with multiple liver abscesses associated with Cushing's syndrome as a result of recreational aquatic exposure.

Nested stromal epithelial tumor of liver presenting with cushing syndrome: A rare case report.

Nested stromal and epithelial tumor of the liver is an extremely rare pediatric hepatic tumor. To the best of our knowledge, about 25 cases have been reported in the English literature so far, few of which accompanied with Cushing syndrome. Herein we report our experience with an 8-year-old boy presented with Cushing's syndrome because of ectopic ACTH production by this tumor.

Síntomas psicóticos, paranoides y catatónicos como debut de enfermedad de Cushing en una paciente con síndrome de Turner: reporte de caso y revisión de la literatura / Psicotic, paranoid and catatonic symptoms as Cushing disease onset in a Turner syndrome patient: case report and literature revision

It is known that hipercortisolism and overactivity of the Hypotalamus pituitary adrenal axis are associated to psiquiatric diseases presentation. In patients with Cushing syndrome, mood disorders are common, also psicosis cases also are present during the disease. But, the presence and mostly the onset with a episode of catatonic psicosis is unusual. The cortisol excess produce structural damage in the Central Nervous System, reversible and irreversible, specially in the hypocampus. We show the case of a young woman with previous diagnostic of Turner syndrome, karyotype 45 X0, who presented a psychiatric episode caracterized for depresive psicotic symptoms and posteriorly a catatonic state as an unusual form of Cushing disease onset. This patient presented health improvement after pituitary resection. There is not evidencia that Turner syndrome influes over this unusual form of presentation.

Se conoce que el hipercortisolismo y la sobreactividad del eje hipotálamo pituitario adrenal están asociados a la presentación de enfermedades psiquiátricas. En pacientes con síndrome de Cushing son frecuentes los trastornos del ánimo aunque también se presentan casos de psicosis durante el curso de la enfermedad. Sin embargo es inusual la presencia y más aún el debut con un cuadro de psicosis catatónica. El exceso de cortisol produce daño estructural en el sistema nervioso central tanto reversible como irreversible, especialmente en el hipocampo. Presentamos el caso de una paciente mujer joven con diagnóstico previo de síndrome de Turner, cariotipo 45 X0, quien presentó un cuadro psiquiátrico caracterizado por síntomas depresivos psicóticos y posteriormente catatonia como forma inusual de debut de enfermedad de Cushing y presentó mejoría posterior a la resección de la pituitaria. No se tiene evidencia que el síndrome de Turner influya sobre esta rara forma de presentación.

[Abu-Najma] Syndrome: exogenous steroid induced Cushing's with serious consequences. A report of two cases

We describe and report two cases of what we called Abu-Najma Syndrome, caused by the ingestion of 'Abu-Najma' tablets: dexamethasone containing tablets promoted as [beauty tablets]. We believe the use of Abu-Najma is fast spreading among young ladies in Sudan. The syndrome has very serious consequences; a concerted effort is required to increase public awareness and prevent the problem. The commonest cause for Cushing's syndrome as well as secondary adrenal failure is the use of exogenous steroids. In this setting steroids are almost always prescribed for treatment of a medical condition. Side effects are usually discussed with the patients beforehand. However, self medication with steroids for non-medical reasons puts patients at increased risk of side effects. The use of steroid containing preparation either topical or oral for cosmetic reasons is on the increase. The following case histories illustrate the dangers associated with such a practice

Hirsutism in Saudi females of reproductive age: a hospital-based study

Hirsutism among women of fertile age is commonly seen in clinical practice, but the pattern of the disease in Saudi Arabs has not been studied. The aim of the study was to determine the clinical, biochemical and etiologic features of hirsutism in Saudi females. 101 Saudi Arab women presenting with hirsutism at King Khalid University Hospital, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, from 1 January 2000 to 31 December 2005 were prospectively assessed using the recently approved diagnostic guidelines for hyperandrogenic women with hirsutism. Polycystic ovary syndrome [PCOS] was the cause of hirsutism in 83 patients [82%] followed by idiopathic hirsutism [IH] in 11 patients [11%]. Others causes of hirsutism included late onset congenital adrenal hyperplasia in 4 patients [4%], microprolactinoma in 2 [2%] and Cushing's syndrome in 1 [1%] patient. Age at presentation of PCOS was 24.5_6.6 years [mean +/- SD] and 51% of the subjects were obese. Furthermore, 74 [89%] of patients with PCOS had an oligo/anovulatory cycle while the remaining 9 patients [11%] maintained normal regular menstrual cycle. Luteinizing hormone and total testosterone were significantly higher in patients with PCOS than in those with IH [P<.05]. The present data show PCOS to be the commonest cause of hirsutism in our clinical practice and PCOS is prominent amongst young obese females. However, further studies on a larger scale are needed to verify our findings

Cushing's syndrome: aftermath of the cure

Cushing's syndrome (CS) is a chronic and systemic disease caused by endogenous or exogenous hypercortisolism, associated with an increase of mortality rate due to the clinical consequences of glucocorticoid excess, especially cardiovascular diseases. After cure, usually obtained by the surgical removal of the tumor responsible for the disease, the normalization of cortisol secretion is not constantly followed by the recovery of the clinical complications developed during the active disease, and it is often followed by the development of novel clinical manifestations induced by the fall of cortisol levels. These evidences were mostly documented in patients with pituitary-dependent CS, after surgical resection of the pituitary tumor. Indeed, despite an improvement of the mortality rate, metabolic syndrome and the consequent cardiovascular risk have been found to partially persist after disease remission, strictly correlated to the insulin resistance. Skeletal diseases, mainly osteoporosis, improve after normalization of cortisol levels but require a long period of time or the use of specific treatment, mainly bisphosphonates, to reach the normalization of bone mass. A relevant improvement or resolution of mental disturbances has been described in patients cured from CS, although in several cases, cognitive decline persisted and psychological or psychiatric improvement was erratic, delayed, or incomplete. On the other hand, development or exacerbation of autoimmune disorders, mainly thyroid autoimmune diseases, was documented in predisposed patients with CS after disease remission. The totality of these complications persisting or occurring after successful treatment contribute to the impairment of quality of life registered in patients with CS after disease cure.

A síndrome de Cushing (SC) é uma desordem sistêmica crônica causada por hipercortisolismo endógeno ou exógeno, associada a um aumento da taxa de mortalidade devido às conseqüências clínicas do excesso de glicocorticóides, especialmente a doença cardiovascular. Após a cura, usualmente obtida pela remoção cirúrgica do tumor responsável pela desordem, a normalização da secreção de cortisol não é sistematicamente seguida da recuperação das complicações clínicas desenvolvidas durante a fase ativa da doença, e é freqüentemente seguida pelo surgimento de novas manifestações clínicas induzidas pela queda dos níveis de cortisol. Estas evidências foram, na sua maioria, documentadas em pacientes com SC de origem hipofisária, após a ressecção cirúrgica do tumor na hipófise. Na verdade, a despeito de uma melhoria na taxa de mortalidade, a síndrome metabólica e seu conseqüente risco cardiovascular têm se mostrado parcialmente persistentes após a remissão da doença, em estrita relação com a resistência à insulina. Anormalidades esqueléticas, especialmente a osteoporose, melhoram após a normalização dos níveis de cortisol, mas requerem um longo tempo ou o uso de tratamento específico, principalmente bisfosfonatos, para se obter a normalização da massa óssea. Uma melhora significativa ou mesmo resolução dos distúrbios mentais têm sido descritos em pacientes curados da SC, embora em vários casos o declínio cognitivo persista e a melhora psicológica ou psiquiátrica tenham sido erráticas, demoradas ou incompletas. Por outro lado, o desenvolvimento ou exacerbação de processos autoimunes, em especial as doenças autoimunes da tiróide, foram documentadas em pacientes predispostos com SC, após a remissão da doença. A totalidade dessas complicações, persistentes ou ocorrendo após o tratamento bem sucedido, contribuem para um prejuízo da qualidade de vida registrado em pacientes com SC após a cura da doença.

Primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease associated with Carney complex: case report and literature review

CONTEXT: Carney complex (CNC), a familial multiple neoplasm syndrome with dominant autosomal transmission, is characterized by tumors of the heart, skin, endocrine and peripheral nervous system, and also cutaneous lentiginosis. This is a rare syndrome and its main endocrine manifestation, primary pigmented nodular adrenal disease (PPNAD), is an uncommon cause of adrenocorticotropic hormone-independent Cushing's syndrome. CASE REPORT: We report the case of a 20-year-old patient with a history of weight gain, hirsutism, acne, secondary amenorrhea and facial lentiginosis. Following the diagnosing of CNC and PPNAD, the patient underwent laparoscopic bilateral adrenalectomy, and she evolved with decreasing hypercortisolism. Screening was also performed for other tumors related to this syndrome. The diagnostic criteria, screening and follow-up for patients and affected family members are discussed.

CONTEXTO: O complexo de Carney (CNC), uma síndrome de neoplasia múltipla familiar com transmissão autossômica dominante, caracteriza-se por tumores cardíacos, cutâneos, endócrinos e do sistema nervoso periférico, além de lentiginose cutânea. RELATO DE CASO: Devido à raridade da síndrome, bem como de sua principal manifestação endócrina, a doença adrenal nodular pigmentada primária (PPNAD), causa incomum de síndrome de Cushing ACTH-independente, relatamos o caso de uma paciente de 20 anos com história de ganho de peso, hirsutismo, acne, amenorréia secundária e lentiginose em face. Após estabelecido o diagnóstico de CNC e PPNAD, a paciente foi submetida a adrenalectomia bilateral via laparoscópica, evoluindo com melhora do hipercortisolismo. Também foi realizado rastreamento para os demais tumores relacionados à síndrome. Serão discutidos os critérios diagnósticos, o rastreamento e o acompanhamento dos pacientes e familiares afetados.

Recurrent lymphocytic hypophysitis in a woman 27 years after subtotal adrenalectomy for hypercortisolism possibly of autoimmune origin.

Lymphocytic hypophysitis commonly occurs in females in peripartum period but several unusual presentations have been reported. Here we report a rare case of recurrent lymphocytic hypophysitis in a woman who had subtotal adrenalectomy for hypercortisolism 27 years back. Polyglandular autoimmune endocrinopathy with an uncommon combination of Cushing's syndrome and recurrent hypophysitis is a strong possibility in this case. Treatment with steroids has been found to have beneficial effect.

Aspectos clínicos fundamentales de la obesidad / Basic and clinical aspects of obesity

La obesidad es una enfermedad frecuente e importante tanto por sí misma como por ser un factor de riesgo de muchas patologías, especialmente cardiovasculares y de diabetes mellitus, asociándose a una mortalidad aumentada. Los factores patogénicos de la obesidad se pueden dividir en genéticos y ambientales, destacándose entre estos últimos aspectos relacionados con el estilo de vida occidental, como son la dieta y el sedentarismo. Estos llevan finalmente a un balance positivo de calorías. Se ha determinado, además, un rol significativo de mediadores hormonales y bioquímicos en relación al apetito y la saciedad. La presencia de comorbilidad asociada a obesidad se relaciona con su fenotipo (androide o ginoide), el que, a su vez, se correlaciona con sus mecanismos fisiopatológicos. El diagnóstico de obesidad y su fenotipo es simple de realizar y se basa en la determinación de los índice de masa corporal y de cintura-cadera. Pocas veces la obesidad es secundaria a una enfermedad endocrina (hipotiroidismo, síndrome de Cushing, síndrome de ovario poliquístico e insulina-resistencia), entidades que deben ser sospechadas con base clínica para un estudio dirigido. La evaluación del obeso es fundamentalmente clínica, dirigiendo anamnesis y examen físico a hechos relevantes. Debe incluirse la medición de glicemia y la realización de un perfil lípido, incluyendo mayores estudios según criterio clínico. El manejo debe dirigirse a la baja y mantención del peso, los factores de riesgo y el desarrollo de una vida saludable. Para lograrlo se debe recurrir a medidas dietéticas, ejercicios físico y terapia conductual. Ante el fracaso de las medidas no farmacológicas se recurre al uso de medicamentos como la sibutramina o el ortistat, este último con mayores efectos adversos. La cirugía tiene indicaciones precisas en caso refractarios a tratamiento y obesos mórbidos.

Lupus eritematoso sistémico síndrome de Cushing y Psiquiatría de enlace / Erythermatous systemic lupus, Cushing syndrome and psychiatric leason

Se presenta el caso de una paciente con diagnóstico de lupus eritematoso sistémico y síndrome de Cushing quien presentó síntomas afectivos de características depresivas e insomnio de conciliación, quien recibió múltiples tratamientos farmacológicos con pobre respuesta inicial. La psiquiatría de enlace consolida una alternativa de tratamiento multidisciplinario para una aproximación más eficiente a las patologías médicas con síntomas psiquiátricos

Hipertensión arterial de origen endocrinológico / Arterial hypertension of endocrinological origin

Este artículo revisa y actualiza el tema de la hipertensión arterial de origen endocrino. Aunque este tipo de patología puede ser de origen suprarrenal o extra suprarrenal, se hace énfasis en el primero, dada su mayor frecuencia, como es el caso del aldosteronismo primario (5-10 por ciento de la población de hipertensos); o su mayor severidad, como por ejemplo el feocromocitoma. En estas dos enfermedades se hace una revisión más exhaustiva respecto al diagnóstico bioquímico, pruebas necesarias para confirmar el diagnóstico y sus opciones terapéuticas. También se revisan otros cuadros suprarrenales menos frecuentes, comentando los últimos avances fisiopatológicos, que permiten comprender mejor la causa de la hipertensión arterial asociada a ellos.